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World Scriptures
ForwardChair, Dept. of Religious Studies,University of California, Santa Barbara It is obvious that as we move into a world civilization, in which so many cultures and spiritual traditions will impinge on one another, it is vital for us all to have an understanding of one another. This does not necessarily mean agreement--how could it given the diversity of human values evident in the world? But it can mean some growing convergence and complementarity between the faiths, large and small, of our shrinking planet. It is therefore good to have sources of comparison between traditions: and one obvious place to look is in the scriptures and sacred writings of the various cultures. Dr. Andrew Wilson supplies us here with an admirable assemblage of quotations from the holy texts of the world. He approaches his systematic task from a broadly theistic angle. As he says in his introduction, others (say, Buddhists) might prefer a different articulation of the material. As he rightly points out, they should create their own books of world scripture. Our world is surely hospitable to a variety of approaches. This way of treating the great traditions could be paralleled by others. But I think that the consequence of his systematic arrangement of themes and texts is that a logical and orderly way of looking at the wide range of material comes through. Dr. Wilson therefore has put together a collection which is illuminating. It is the kind of anthology which will be of interest in various areas. First there are those people whose genuine concern for religion and spirituality will be further stimulated by having easy access to so many scriptural traditions. Second there are many students of the comparative study of religions or history of religions who may be able to use this book in the classroom and beyond. Third there are many religious professionals, whether Christian or Muslim or Buddhist or whatever, who will find this a good reference book. After all, every tradition has in today's world to take account of the other traditions. What does the Buddhist say about Christian theism? What does the Muslim say about Chinese traditions? What does the theist say about non-theistic religions? These are vital questions, if men and women in the world are to take both their own traditions and those of others seriously. This anthology will help to guide their path and to spark questions. It is compiled in the spirit of reverence for all spiritual paths. This is a needed spirit if we are to live at peace with one another. That is not always easy: I would not underestimate the tensions which in actual society can occur between sisters and brothers of apparently rival faiths. But gradually we shall overcome such tensions, and learn to converse and argue gently with one another. An anthology such as this will help such conversations. I am therefore very glad that Dr. Wilson has taken so much trouble in bringing this book to publication. We can all learn from one another. Ninian Smart J.F. Rowny Professor of Comparative Religions University of California Santa Barbara IntroductionWe live in an ecumenical age. The progress in transportation and communication that has brought all the peoples of the world into one global village has also brought the religions of the world into close contact. Just half a century ago, Christians living in North America might never have met a Muslim or a Buddhist throughout their whole lives; in ignorance they could believe that such people were heathen and in dire need of salvation. Muslims in Syria, or Buddhists in Thailand, could as easily hold a similar view of the foreign religions that occasionally intruded upon their lands. But today Western cities teem with immigrants from Asia and Africa bearing their native faiths, and our commercial and political affairs connect us with all nations. A movement for a "wider ecumenism" has begun, bringing together for dialogue leaders and scholars from all the world's religions. Theologians of all faiths are affirming the positive worth of other religions and seeking to overcome the prejudice of an earlier time. It is now widely recognized that humanity's search for God, or for the Ultimate Reality, called by whatever name, is at the root of all religions.The first step toward appreciating other religions is to understand each on its own terms. Each religion has its own spiritual depth; each gives its own distinctive answers to many of the fundamental questions which trouble human existence. To this end, most religion textbooks treat each major religion in turn, and most anthologies present selections from the world's scriptures religion by religion. However, by treating each religion separately, these texts and anthologies tend to emphasize differences and overlook similarities. They may give the impression that each religion stands alone as an independent system and a different way of knowing and being. Thus the variety of religions would appear to be a testimony to the relativity of human beliefs rather than to the existence of the one Absolute Reality which stands behind all of them. Interfaith dialogue in our time is going beyond the first step of appreciating other religions to a growing recognition that the religions of the world have much in common. The Christian participant may find something in Islam, for example, that can deepen his or her Christianity, and the Muslim participant may find something instructive from the teachings of Buddhism. The common ground between religions becomes more apparent as the dialogue partners penetrate beneath superficial disagreements in doctrine. Today the call for a "world theology" has been sounded by many scholars, including Wilfred Cantwell Smith, John Hick, and Raimundo Panikkar. They explain that religions are not tight and consistent philosophical systems. While a particular religion may have certain predominant themes, it must--as the foundation of a culture--be broad enough to inform all aspects of human experience. Hence every religion has, within its own borders, considerable diversity of belief and practice. The variety of ways of being human religiously cut across the religions: the Roman Catholic mystic, the seeker of Brahman through Hindu Vedanta, and the Zen Buddhist monk may have more in common with one another than with the members of the fundamentalist movements of their own traditions, and fundamentalist Christians, Jews, and Muslims may similarly find common ground not shared by their more mystically oriented counterparts. In addition, historians of religions now recognize that the religious traditions of the world did not grow up in isolation; they have enriched one another in diverse ways at many significant points of contact. Hence it is inadequate to treat religions as discrete and independent entities. We must seek new, holistic models to describe the human religious experience. We may even, like Hick, speak of a coming "Copernican revolution" in religion that recognizes a unity underlying all religions. To discern the shape of this underlying unity is the end towards which World Scripture has been compiled. Purpose Of World Scripture World Scripture gathers passages from the scriptures of the various religious traditions around certain topics. Often these scriptural passages support a common theme; sometimes they illuminate several contrasting positions on the topic. This method of organization allows each topic to be addressed with the resources of many different traditions, often providing a broader and deeper understanding of the topic than would be possible from the resources of a single tradition. Each religion has much value to contribute to humankind's understanding of truth, which transcends any particular expression. All religions do not teach the same message. The contributors have provided passages which fairly represent the main thrust of each religion's teachings. However, since the tenets of each religion are taken out of their ordinary frame of reference, there is always the danger that they might be misinterpreted. Therefore, it would be a mistake to read World Scripture as though it were proclaiming a monolithic, universal teaching of all religions. Rather, the similarities and common themes highlighted in this anthology should be viewed against each religion's distinctive message. The reader is cautioned: until one takes the first step of understanding each religion in its own distinctiveness, its contribution to the unity of religions is likely to be misinterpreted. Many would also suggest that to truly understand another religion, one should first be deeply committed to one's own faith and its traditions. Granting the integrity of each religion, it is significant for the believer of one faith to find in other faiths common teachings and common attitudes towards life, death, and ultimate ends. First, there is the discovery that the transcendent Reality that is the ground of life in one's own faith is also grounding the spiritual life of people whose faith stems from different revelations, different revealers. This confirms and testifies to the oneness of God, the Ultimate Reality, who appears in different guises from age to age and culture to culture. Second, the discovery that people of other faiths are leading spiritual lives similar to one's own can promote tolerance of, and respect for, other faiths. By understanding one another's religions in depth and with empathy, people can find peaceful solutions to disputes which might otherwise degenerate into dangerous conflict. Third, the teachings of another tradition may spark new insights into similar issues in one's own life of faith. Indeed, if each religion is but a witness to the Truth that transcends its particular expression, then all of them should contribute valuable insights to our understanding of any question. Fourth, humankind needs to rediscover the spiritual foundations of values in order to overcome the sterile, materialist outlooks and philosophies of our day. Despite both the common moral values and the traditional spiritual wisdom found in all religions, persistent squabbles among religions have served to discredit them, making universal values appear to be relative and sectarian. The foundation of a pluralistic society--its cultural expressions, legal system, and public schools--requires values that are grounded in the universal experience of humankind, not just in the doctrines of one faith. Necessary to this foundation is testimony to the universality of religious values such as found herein. Finally, a World Scripture can support a world theology and guide us toward a unity of the world's peoples that is grounded in God. Organization Of World Scripture The bulk of the material found in the World Scripture comes from the scriptures of the five major living world religious traditions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Chinese religion (Confucianism and Taoism). There are also a considerable number of texts from the smaller living religions: Judaism, Jainism, Sikhism, Shinto, and Zoroastrianism. Whenever these religions have a word to say about any topic in the anthology, the contributors have provided suitable passages. There are also a limited number of selections from the recorded prayers and proverbs of the traditional religions of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the South Pacific, and from some of the new religions of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Texts from these smaller religions, both traditional and contemporary, are included to acknowledge the diversity of religious expression in the world today. These are all voices which should be heard. However, one group of voices that is sometimes found in anthologies of religion has been omitted: since World Scripture aims to promote harmony among living faiths, it does not include texts from the dead religions of the past such as those of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The texts in World Scripture have been deliberately restricted, wherever possible, to passages from scripture. This distinguishes it from topical anthologies of religious wisdom which draw on the writings of mystics, saints, and sages. Scripture may be regarded variously as direct revelation from God or as the distilled insights received by the founder and his disciples. In either case, it posseses a certain authority and priority as the fount of the religion. In scripture we grasp the freshness of the original revelation. Through constant liturgical use, scriptural texts are engraved in the hearts of believers. The laws in scripture provide the standard around which a religion elaborates its cultural norms. It is to scripture that believers turn for inspiration and revival in every age. The definition of scripture and canon varies from one religion to another; in general each religion's own definition of its canonical scriptures has been accepted as the criterion for this anthology. The selection of a canon reflects both the usage of these texts by the religious community and historical decisions by councils and groups as the religion grappled with its identity and established norms of doctrine and practice. Through history and usage, the community of believers settled on sacred texts which speak with enduring authority. There are inevitable dissimilarities between the scriptures of religions with a tightly circumscribed canon limited to texts used by the founder and his immediate disciples, e.g., Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and the scriptures of religions with an open canon that includes texts of many periods in the religion's history, e.g., Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The scriptures of religions with a narrow canon are limited to one or a few books--the Bible, the Qur'an, the Adi Granth--while the scriptures of religions with an open canon may include hundreds of books: sutras, upanishads, agamas, shastras, puranas, tantras, and commentaries. We have tried to preserve a balance among the number of passages cited for each of the major religions. Fortunately, the various scriptures of religions with an open canon contain considerable repetition, and hence a few representative passages can be culled for each topic. The term "scripture" is used somewhat loosely for the inspired writings of the new religions which may still live in the presence of the founder or his immediate disciples. Many of them have distinctive texts, but some are too young to have settled on which of them are scripture; the process of establishing a canon takes place only after a religion has had time to define its boundaries and solidify its traditions. We must further stretch the limits of what is considered scripture in order to include the traditional religions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas, which have no written texts. What makes scripture important is not the fact that it is written but that it is inspired and authoritative. In these traditional religions, an authoritative body of tradition has been passed down from generation to generation through words, symbols, and rituals. This body of tradition fulfills the function of scripture by giving an account of, among other things, the nature of God, the origin of the world, the duty of human beings, and human destiny. All the written scriptures of the major religions began as oral traditions. We consider the enduring oral traditions of the traditional religions as scripture in a broad sense, for they are written in the hearts of the practitioners of these faiths. Another problem in dealing with scripture is that many of them cannot be adequately translated into English. The manifold nuances of a scripture's original language can never be fully rendered in translation. Furthermore, for those religions, including Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism, which revere the language of their scriptures as sacred, the holiness of their scriptures can be conveyed only in the sacred tongue. We must acknowledge, therefore, that the English translations of scriptures in World Scripture are only interpretations which convey a pale reflection of the original. We have sought translations which, whenever possible, satisfy two criteria: the translator should himself or herself be a practitioner of the religion with a spiritual sensitivity to the depth of the tradition, and the translator should have a good command of the English language. In several cases where no English translation was available or where existing translations were judged inadequate, new translations were commissioned. In making their selections, the contributors have exercised discretion in seeking higher expressions of the spirit and avoiding passages that are mean-spirited and offensive to other religions. The scriptures of most religions contain passages attacking, and often misrepresenting, the doctrines and practices of other religions. This is understandable in light of the conflicts which most religions experienced in their youth against the older dominant religion. Sometimes the older religion was in a corrupt form that was far removed from its own higher expressions. Polemics attacking a priest, brahmin, mullah, or rabbi for hypocrisy could best be understood not as a partisan attack on another religion, but rather as illuminating a universal problem of religious people. But too often they have fostered prejudice and inhibited interreligious understanding. Examples include: New Testament polemics against the Jews and the Mosaic Law, the Qur'an's polemics against the Christian doctrine that Jesus is the Son of God, and the Lotus Sutra's polemics against Theravada Buddhism as an inferior vehicle. The topics around which the scripture passages are gathered have been selected as broadly comprehensive of the concerns shared by many of the major religions. Certain topics that belong to only one or two religions are omitted in favor of topics that can be construed to include several distinct but related religious ideas. Thus, for example, there is no topic "resurrection," but Christian and Muslim passages on resurrection are included under the broader topics The Immortal Soul, Heaven, and Hell where they stand alongside passages from other religions on the afterlife. While each religion has something to say about more than seventy percent of the topics, certain themes are ignored or even rejected by some religions: for example, Jainism and Buddhism say nothing about a God who is Creator. In those cases, the religion will not show any passages on that topic. Sometimes counterexamples will be given, for example under the topic Asceticism and Monasticism are several critiques of the practice. Furthermore, since many passages are relevant to more than one topic, extensive cross-references are given in footnotes, and a few key passages may be duplicated under several headings. The organization of the topics follows generally the pattern of Christian systematic theology: God and creation, evil and sin, salvation, ethics, and eschatology. But this outline has been broadened by the inclusion of many non-Christian themes in order to include every topic regarded as central by any of the world's religions. Some may object at this point that the World Scripture has such a recognizably theistic perspective. Certainly the topics could have been organized differently: for example, according to a Buddhist schema of the Four Noble Truths or a Hindu schema of the several yogas or paths to Ultimate Reality.[1] There is at present no recognized systematic theology of world religious knowledge. Some particular organizational scheme had to be selected, and, whatever the organization, it would necessarily be more congenial to one religion or another. To those whose religious understanding leads them to take exception to the organizational scheme selected, we can only invite them to write their own world scriptures from their own religious understandings and faith perspectives. By publicizing the enduring worth and common testimonies of the scriptures of other faiths, all such anthologies, whatever their perspectives, will contribute to the broad dialogue among religions that will promote interreligious harmony. Selecting the topics and assembling the passages for the World Scripture has required the efforts of editors and advisors representing all of the major world religions. Some of them labored long and hard to gather the texts which would best express the unique perspective of their religions. Others gave invaluable reviews of the unfinished manuscript. Through this collaboration, we have sought to ensure that the selection of topics and of scriptural passages will not reflect the viewpoint of any one religion, but will indeed embrace the breadth and variety of religious viewpoints in a balanced manner. The World's Religons And Their Scriptures At this point it is worthwhile to introduce the various religions and their scriptures which are included in this anthology. We will proceed, geographically, from West to East. Judaism and Christianity are two monotheistic, ethical religions which share a part of their scriptures in common; the Bible or Tanakh of the Jews is the Old Testament of the Christians. These religions share many common beliefs: (1) there is one God, (2) mighty and (3) good, (4) the Creator, (5) who reveals His Word to man, and (6) answers prayers. Both Judaism and Christianity make (7) a positive affirmation of the world as the arena of God's activity, (8) as the place where people have an obligation to act ethically, and (9) which should be redeemed from injustice. Both believe in (10) a future life, as well as a doctrine of resurrection. Finally, both look to (11) a final consummation of history and (12) the realization of God's complete sovereignty on earth, through the coming of a Messiah or, in the case of modern forms of Judaism, a Messianic age. Besides these similarities of doctrine, Christianity is bound to pay special attention to Judaism because Jesus and his disciples were Jews. They lived as Jews; the Jewish Bible was their Bible, and they criticized Jewish beliefs and practices as reformers from within. Jesus' life and teachings are largely incomprehensible without an understanding of the Judaism of his time. Although Judaism and Christianity share many common elements in their beliefs, there are also deep differences. First, for Judaism God is one and unique; for Christianity God is one in His nature but there are three persons constituting the Holy Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Christians believe in Jesus, called Christ, the Messiah, who is the Incarnation of the second person of the Trinity: therefore adoration is not given to man but to God who became man. Salvation for mankind is entirely the gift of God, through the sacrifice of the second person of the Trinity, who became man and suffered and died in his humanity and became alive again. Christians believe in Christ and in his passion, death, and resurrection; they follow his teachings and example; and after death they expect to share in his glorious resurrection. Judaism, for its part, is no less conscious of God's grace, but it offers sanctification through membership in the Jewish people and by regarding the scriptures as teaching and enjoining a life of holiness. For Jews the Messiah has not yet come, and they still anticipate the coming of the Messiah or Messianic age. Their future hope is an earthly vision of a world of peace and justice. The Christian future hope is expressed by the doctrine of the Second Coming of Christ, when evil will finally come to an end and the spiritual blessings already accomplished in Jesus Christ will be manifested substantially in the Kingdom of Heaven. Both Judaism and Christianity no longer practice the scriptural laws of animal sacrifices. But while for Judaism the mitzvot, the ethical and ritual commandments of the Bible, remain normative, and are elaborated in the Talmud as the halakah or requirements of life, Christianity has regard only for the Bible's ethical teachings--i.e., the Ten Commandments. Christianity emphasizes faith in Jesus Christ, who gives grace, empowerment, and guidance for living the moral life.[2] Judaism teaches a life of holiness through performing mitzvot and emphasizes the importance of adhering to the Bible's standards of social justice as laid down by the Prophets. The two religions have also diverged on the meaning of the Fall of Man; Christianity affirms a doctrine of Original Sin which is not emphasized in Judaism. These deep differences extend to the way Judaism and Christianity regard their sacred writings. Judaism regards its sacred books as the complete source for all the teachings which God requires of his people for their welfare. For Christianity, the sacred books of Judaism, called the Old Testament, are taken as a preparation for the final revelation that God would make through Christ--a revelation that is written in the books of the New Testament. Judaism's Bible or Tanakh is made up of the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nebi'im), and the Writings (Ketuvim); its books were written over a period of more than thirteen hundred years of Jewish history, from the time of Moses until several centuries before the common era. The center of this scripture is the Torah, the Five Books of Moses. The book of Genesis contains stories of creation, the Fall of Man, and the lives of the patriarchs Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy recount the Jews' liberation from slavery in Egypt and the revealing of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Prophets include the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings recounting the history of Israel in the days when it was guided by its prophets, and Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Amos, Hosea, Micah, Habakkuk, Jonah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, etc., which record the words of individual prophets. Among the Writings are the book of Psalms containing prayers and hymns; Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job containing wise sayings, discourses on wisdom, and meditations on the human condition; Lamentations mourning the destruction of the Temple; Song of Songs, where love poetry has long been interpreted as describing the mystical relationship between God and Israel or God and man; and Daniel with its stories of faith in the midst of persecution. In addition to the Tanakh, a tradition of Oral Torah, passed down to the rabbis of the first several centuries of the common era and codified in the Talmud, which is constituted by the Mishnah and the Gemara, is authoritative for the observant Jew. One may regard the role of Talmud and Midrash--early rabbinic interpretation of scripture--as providing the interpretative perspective for a proper understanding of the Bible. While much of the Talmud and Midrash is devoted to discussions and codifications of law, they also contain passages of universal spiritual and ethical wisdom. The best known collection of the latter is a small tractate of the Mishnah called the Abot or Sayings of the Fathers.[3] Beyond the Talmud and Midrash, Jewish tradition also hallows the books of statutory prayers. The mystical treatise called the Zohar and several other works together constitute the Kabbalah or mystical tradition which has canonical status for many Jews. A number of theological works, notably The Guide for the Perplexed by Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) and Shulhan Arukh by Joseph Caro (16th century) are also held in the highest regard. The Christian Bible includes the Old and New Testaments. The Old Testament was the scripture of Jesus and his followers who were themselves Jews. It is identical to the Jewish Bible but with its books in a different order. Christians emphasize the prophetic books above all other parts of the Old Testament, for they are seen to announce the advent of Jesus Christ. Roman Catholic and Orthodox Bibles include a number of additional books, called deutero-canonical books, in the Old Testament. Notable among them are the wisdom books Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon, the stories of Tobit and Judith, and the history of the Maccabean revolt with its stories glorifying martyrdom in I-IV Maccabees. These books circulated among Jews during the last two centuries before Christ and were included in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the scriptures. The New Testament is written in Greek; the early Christians largely spoke Greek; and they used the Septuagint as their Old Testament. But these books were not included in the canon of Hebrew scriptures as fixed by the rabbis at Jamnia in 90 a.d. At the time of the Protestant Reformation, when the Reformers returned to the Hebrew rabbinic text as their standard, they omitted these books from their vernacular translations of the Bible--e.g., Luther's Bible and the English King James Version. They are known to Protestants as the Apocrypha. The Roman Catholic Church reaffirmed their status as holy scripture at the Council of Trent (1545-1603), and they remain part of the Orthodox scriptures as well. Most modern translations of the Bible now include them. The New Testament contains the four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The first three "synoptic gospels" have much in common, recording the life and sayings of Jesus, his death, and resurrection. The Gospel of John provides a life of Christ who is portrayed as the mystical source of salvation. The epistles by the apostles Paul, Peter, James, John, and others discuss matters of theology, doctrine, faith, and morals for the early Church of the first century. Paul was the foremost of the apostles, and his writings include the epistle to the Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Other letters attributed to Paul, and which certainly are indebted to his influence, include Ephesians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews. Acts of the Apostles is a history of the church from the first Pentecost to the evangelical tours of Peter and Paul. The Book of Revelation gives a vision of the end of the world and the Second Coming of Christ. All the books of the New Testament were written within one hundred years of Jesus' death, although the final decision about which books would be included or excluded from the New Testament canon did not come until the fourth century. Islam is the third great monotheistic religion which traces its roots back to Abraham, and its teachings show many continuities with the Jewish and Christian scriptures. Islam proclaims Allah, the one God, the Creator, who is sovereign and good, who answers prayers, and who works with mankind in history by calling prophets to proclaim God's word. There is a positive affirmation of the world as God's creation and the arena where people are obligated to act ethically. Islam offers only two choices for mankind: belief or unbelief, God or Satan, with the result that they will attain either Paradise or the fire of hell. For Islam, the prophets are God's intermediaries to humanity, and Muhammad (c. 570-632) is the Seal of the Prophets. The prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Moses, and many others named and unnamed, delivered God's word to diverse peoples. They each had specific missions, but their messages are ultimately one: submit the self to the will of God. Jesus is one of the prophets--though titled Messiah, he has no distinctive messianic role in the sense that Christians ascribe to him, nor is he in any sense divine. His message and purpose were consistent with those of the prophets before and after him. The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad, is the perfect and accurate record of God's message by the prophets of every age. Islam is a religion to be practiced, and five obligations are required of every Muslim--called the Five Pillars: (1) confession of faith in God and in Muhammad as God's messenger, (2) daily prayer at the five appointed times, (3) fasting during the month of Ramadan, (4) paying an alms-tax and giving charity to the poor, and (5) pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca and its sacred shrine, the Kaaba. By fulfilling these obligations and remembering God often, the Muslim is assured of God's favor both on earth and at the judgment. Islam's basic scripture is the Qur'an, which was revealed by the angel Gabriel to the prophet Muhammad, who according to tradition was unlettered. Gabriel recited its verses to Muhammad, who in turn taught them to his followers who memorized them and wrote them down on leaves and scraps of paper. They were gathered into the definitive text of the Qur'an within a generation of the prophet's death. The Qur'an has 114 suras, arranged in order of decreasing length.[4] Several interpretations of the Qur'an are available in English, but no true translation: the Qur'an was revealed specifically in Arabic, and a translation into any other language cannot convey the holiness of the Arabic Qur'an. With regard to the authority of texts beyond the Qur'an, Islam is split into two large sects, Sunni and Shiite. The many Sufi writings, so popular in the West, are not regarded as having the authority of scripture in Islam. Sunni Muslims revere the Sunnah, the teaching of Muhammad based upon hadith, the traditions and sayings of the prophet Muhammad as recollected and transmitted by his companions. Most of the hadith concern the specifics of Islamic law, but some concern matters of faith, morality, and eschatology. The six great classical compilers of the Sunnah are: Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud, Tirmidhi, an-Nasa'i, and Ibn Majah--with Bukhari and Muslim the most authoritative. These collections are the fruits of 'ilm al-hadith, the Science of Tradition, which established criteria for deciding the reliability of traditions, classifying them as "sound," "good," "weak," or "infirm." The compilations by Bukhari and Muslim, and several secondary collections of hadith based upon the six compilations, are available in English translation. Most notable among them is The Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi, a slim collection of traditions which continues to inspire with its concise expression of the heart of Islamic spirit uality. Another authoritative tradition in Islam which has been excerpted for this anthology is the biography of Muhammad by Ibn Ishaq, the Sirat Rasul Allah, which survives only in the version edited by his disciple Ibn Hisham. The Shiite tradition in Islam has its own collections of hadith which differ only in minor details from the Sunni collections, but these do not have the authority of the Sunnah and are not quoted in this anthology. What most distinguishes Shiite Islam is its reverence for 'Ali (d. 661), the son-in-law of Muhammad, who became the fourth Caliph and ruled the Muslim peoples for seven years until his death as a martyr. 'Ali is regarded as the perfect exemplar of Islam, and his sermons and sayings are collected in the Nahjul Balagha. For Shiite Muslims the Nahjul Balagha is a sacred scripture second only to the Qur'an. The prophet Zarathustra (c. 1000 b.c.) is the founder of Zoroastrianism. Once the major religion of ancient Persia, Zoroastrianism has had considerable influence on the thought of Christianity and Islam. Yet despite its historical importance, today Zoroastrianism exists only as a remnant. After suffering persecution and expulsion from Iran, the community of practicing Zoroastrians has dwindled to less than one hundred thousand Parsis, most of whom live in the vicinity of Bombay, India. Contemporary Zoroastrians are monotheistic. They worship one God, Ahura Mazda, the Lord of Wisdom, whose various aspects are personified in scripture as the archangels Good Mind, Righteousness, Devotion, Dominion, and others. He is symbolized by the fire, which is at the center of Zoroastrian ritual. Zoroastrianism teaches an ethical dualism; there is a constant battle between a wholly good God and the powers of evil. This struggle occurs within the human breast and necessitates the choice between good and evil. The soul is immortal, and each will receive divine justice according to its deeds in life. But good and evil are not equal: God and Right will ultimately triumph at the end of history. The good life is one of purity, virtue, industry, and benevolence. The scripture of Zoroastrianism is the Avesta. Among its books, the main liturgical text is called the Yasna. At the core of the Yasna are the Gathas, hymns composed by Zarathustra and his immediate followers, which make up chapters 28-34, 43-51, and 53 of the Yasna. They are at the center of Zoroastrian worship. The other books of the Avesta include the Videvdad, a collection of purificatory laws, the Visparad, a collection of ritual litanies to all spiritual lords, and the Yasht, containing Zoroastrian epic literature. This anthology quotes selections mainly from the Gathas. In selecting suitable translations of their allusive poetry, the editor has favored translations which express their meaning for contemporary believers. The Hindu religious tradition defies description by any simple list of doctrines and practices. Some branches are monistic and see divinity as pervading all reality, some are largely dualistic and posit reality as the interrelation of the divine Spirit (Purusha) and primordial material nature (prakriti), some are monotheistic and revere a personal God, and still others worship the Nameless and Formless God with many names and forms. A Hindu may worship God in the form of Krishna or Shiva, or seek unity with the impersonal Brahman, yet he will regard all these as symbols for one Ultimate Reality. Whether a Vedantist who sees Reality as impersonal or a devotee of the Goddess Durga, he finds sanction for his views in the same scriptures. As it is stated in the Rig Veda: "Truth is one, and the learned call it by many names." If one might hazard a list of common features of Hindu faith and practice, it might include: (1) Brahman or Ultimate Reality is both personal and impersonal and appears in many forms; (2) it is accessible through a variety of paths (margas): knowledge (jnana yoga), devotion (bhakti yoga), and action (karma yoga); and (3) it is realized by those sages who have attained union or communion with that Reality. (4) On the other hand, creation and the phenomena of worldly life are temporal and partial; they conceal the total Truth and its realization. (5) Hindus further hold the doctrine of karma, which says that each thought, word, and action brings appropriate recompense, thereby upholding the moral government and ultimate justice of the cosmos; and (6) the doctrine of reincarnation, understood as a dreary round of continued suffering or a continuous series of fresh opportunities to improve one's lot. Inequality of endowment and fortune is explained as the working out of karma and not as the result of some discrimination by God. Hindus also uphold (7) the authority of the Vedas; (8) the traditions of family and social life, with its four stages of student, householder, spiritual seeker, and ascetic who renounces all for the sake of spiritual progress and the welfare of all; (9) the four goals of life: righteousness (dharma), economic wealth (artha), pleasure (kama), and spiritual freedom (moksha); and (10) the validity and viability of the ideal social order and its attendant duties, which have degenerated into the caste system. The many sects of Hinduism, with few exceptions, share these features in common. Those Indian faiths which protested several of these features, such as Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, soon became distinguished from the Hindu fold. Hinduism's long tradition has produced many sacred works. The most ancient and authoritative are the revealed literature (shruti): these are the Vedas that include the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. The four Vedas, the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda, have been transmitted orally from generation to generation for more than three thousand years. They are written in verse and contain hymns, ritual formulae, chants, and prayers. An exact method of traditional Vedic chanting has preserved most of the vedic hymns from corruption. Many of the Vedic hymns are addressed to deified powers of nature which are understood as manifestations of cosmic truth. Some refer to partaking of soma and the horse sacrifice, rituals that are rarely practiced by modern Hindus. Nevertheless, a proper understanding of the ancient Vedas shows them to contain all the essential elements of Hindu thought. It is those Vedic passages of eternal relevance that are excerpted in this anthology. The Brahmanas are prose amplifications of the Vedas. Two of them are quoted in this volume: the Sathapata Brahmana and the Tandya Maha Brahmana. There are 108 Upanishads, composed at various times (900 b.c. to 200 b.c.); they belong to one or another recension of the Vedas or Aranyakas. Etymologically, "upanishad" means "sitting near," and the Upanishads record the philosophical and mystical teachings given by the ancient sages as they sat surrounded by their disciples. The commentaries of Shankara (d. 750 a.d.) highlighted eleven principal Upanishads: the Isha, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka, and Svetasvatara. The Maitri Upanishad is also regarded as significent by many authorities. A few Upanishads such as the Svetasvatara may be interpreted in a predominantly monotheistic sense as teaching devotion to a personal God, but the general trend of the Upanishads is to identify Reality as supra-personal Brahman, who is "not this, not that"--beyond any particular description, and is one with the Atman or universal Self resid ing in the heart of each person. They teach that liberation is to realize the Atman within while transcending the ego-self that is identified with the psycho-physical organism, its actions and desires. The most widely known Hindu scripture is the Bhagavad Gita. Composed several centuries before the beginning of our era, it is but one book of the great epic the Mahabharata. However, the authority and influence of the Bhagavad Gita is such that it is usually raised to the status of an Upanishad. It has been called "India's favorite Bible," and with its emphasis on selfless service it was a prime source of inspiration for Mahatma Gandhi. Shar ing many affinities with the older Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita sanctions several paths for realizing the highest goal of life. But it is also distinctively monotheistic, teaching that devotion (bhakti) is the supreme way to approach God and receive His grace. Other later Hindu texts are called sacred traditions (smriti), of lesser authority than the shruti. These include the great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Episodes from these epics are familiar to every Indian school child, and they provide the themes of countless popular dramas and movies. The Ramayana recounts the story of Rama, who is an avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, and his wife Sita. It exalts the ideals of family life as superior to claims of rule and wealth. Rama obeys his father even though it means giving up his kingdom and dwelling in the forest. Then, when Sita is abducted by the evil demon-king Ravanna, Rama must go through many trials until he can mount an expedition to defeat Ravanna and regain his wife. Sita's perfect virtue is manifest as she faithfully goes into exile with Rama and later preserves her chastity during the captivity under Ravanna. The Mahabharata recounts the civil war between the clan of the Kauravas, led by the evil Duryodhana and his cohort Karna, against the Pandavas who are championed by Arjuna and Krishna. Krishna is, like Rama, an avatar of Vishnu (the name used by Vaishnavas to designate the One God) under human conditions and limitations, but in the eleventh chapter of the Bhagavad Gita he reveals his transcendental form to Arjuna. Throughout the epic the virtues of courage, devotion to duty, and right living are extolled. Another group of smriti texts are the collections of dharma, duty or law as it relates to members of society. The Laws of Manu is the most important of these, and we also include excerpts from the collections of Narada, Vasishtha, and Apastamba. Regarding the laws in these collections, the editors have chosen to avoid those controversial matters relating to the caste system. Despite the Vedic origins of varnashrama dharma, the degenerate caste system is probably the one feature of Hinduism which is repudiated by most modern Hindu reformers and intellectuals. This is in keeping with the aim of World Scripture, to accentuate the positive features of religion. The Puranas are medieval collections of laws, stories, and philosophy which largely reflect the teachings of older scriptures but also illustrate them with concrete stories and examples. They are enormously influential in the popular religious expressions of modern India. The most well-known of these is the Srimad Bhagavatam or Bhagavata Purana, the scripture of Krishna's life and teachings, his childhood exploits, and his love of the adoring cowherd girls, which is central to the religion of Vaishnavite Hindus. Another Vaishnavite scripture, the Vishnu Purana, contains a prophecy about Kalki, a future avatar. The Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, and Linga Purana are among the scriptures of Shaivism. The Garuda Purana and Matsya Purana contain descriptions of the afterlife and the effects of karma on a person's destiny. The Markandeya Purana contains a story of a king whose compassionate attitude closely resembles that of a bodhisattva, and a description of the victory of the Goddess Durga, a popular Hindu deity. Many other Puranas exist, and more are still being written, adding to the fascinating variety of India's religious landscape. Tantras are manuals of religious practice. Tantrism in both Hinduism and Buddhism uses yogic techniques, symbolic ritual, and the transmutation of ordinary desire in order to transcend all desires by identification with Ultimate Reality. This last feature has given Tantrism a scandalous reputation for purportedly licentious rites, but in fact all genuine Tantric practice requires as a prerequisite mastery over ordinary desires by total ascetic self-control. These texts are represented here by the Kularnava Tantra. Hindu philosophers, saints, and poets have produced a voluminous literature which is largely beyond the scope of an anthology limited to scripture. We mention the sutras, and their commentaries laying out the six orthodox philosophical systems (darshanas): Vedanta (the Brahma Sutra of Badarayana and commentaries by Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva), Yoga (the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Purva Mimansa. These texts delve into specialized realms of philosophy; in large measure, the religious content of these systems is already covered by the Vedas and Upanishads upon which they heavily draw. We also cannot do justice to the literature of the medieval saints who expressed their devotion to Shiva or Vishnu in dance, poems, and love songs in the vernacular languages of the many states of India. In Tamil-nadu the Nayanars adored Shiva and the Alvars sang of Vishnu: chief among them was Nammalvar who wrote of the devotee as a woman totally immersed in love with her husband Vishnu. Of Hindi poets the foremost was Kabir, whose poetry joining Hindu and Islamic Sufi concepts has become an enduring source of wisdom for all Indians; we meet some of his verses as they have been incorporated in the Sikh scriptures. Others include Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, and Jayadeva, whose Gita Govinda, a poem in Sanskrit describing the love of Radha and Krishna, is widely performed in temple dances. These and countless other saints continue to express the Hindu tradition in forms that are ever new. Of these devotional movements, the Lingayats of Karnataka province in southwest India are worthy of special mention because of their distinctive beliefs and reforming spirit. The Virashaiva movement, founded by Basavanna (12th century a.d.), rejected the caste system, disputed the authority of the Vedas, opposed image-worship, and taught a personal religion of devotional monotheism that dispensed with temple and priesthood. Basavanna's reforms have justly been compared to those of Martin Luther. His Vachanas are venerated as scripture. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion with about twenty million adherents. It teaches devotion to God and denial of egoism as the basis for the good life. A relatively modern religion, it was born in the fifteenth century in the Punjab in northern India under the inspiration of Guru Nanak. He and the four Gurus who followed him sought to cut through the differences between Hindus and Muslims and among castes, teaching that inner intention and purity of devotion, not doctrine or social status, are the measure of a person before God. Each of these Gurus spoke as a reformer within his own community, as a Hindu among Hindus and a Muslim among Muslims; their intention was to reform from within, though now they speak to us as founders of an independent religion. For under the pressure of persecution, Sikhism developed under the last five Gurus into a distinct religious community with its own code of conduct and distinctive forms of dress. The writings of the first five Gurus were compiled by Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Guru, into the Adi Granth. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, ended the succession of Gurus and invested the Adi Granth as the Guru Granth Sahib, the eternal living Guru. Since then, the Guru Granth has been the object of ultimate sanctity and the source of sacred inspiration; it is the highest authority for the Sikhs. The Adi Granth is a collection of verse compositions, grouped together into ragas, the musical meters according to which they are sung. The pagination is standardized in the Punjabi text, along with notation indicating which Guru authored the verse: M.1 indicates verses of Guru Nanak; M.2, those of Guru Angad; M.3, those of Guru Amar Das; M.4, those of Guru Ram Das; M.5, those of Guru Arjan Dev; and M.9, of Guru Tegh Bahadur. In line with the expansive spirit of the Gurus, the Adi Granth also contains verses from Hindu and Muslim poets of that age such as Kabir, Ravidas, Surdas, Farid, and Ramanand. Jainism is the religion of about ten million people in India, with its own distinctive scriptures, history, and a long philosophic tradition. Although a part of the greater Indian culture, Jainism, like Buddhism, is a non-Vedic religious tradition, rejecting the authority of the Vedas, Upanishads, and other Hindu scriptures and their deities. Noted for its rigorous asceticism, Jain thought has influenced the greater Indian culture especially through its doctrine of ahimsa, non-injury to all living beings. Jainism teaches a strict doctrine of karma, which binds a person to suffer rebirth and retribution for all evil actions. A person must therefore liberate himself or herself from the fetters of karma by taking a vow of asceticism and thenceforth avoiding all violence in deed, in word, and in thought. All passionate desire begets violence, and is itself the result of the karmas of a deluded consciousness which must be eliminated. Jainism does not accept a creator God or personal God; instead each person has within himself or herself the potential to realize perfection and become a paramatman, a soul freed from all karmic fetters and able to reach the highest point in the universe. Mahavira, born Nataputta Vardhamana (599-527 b.c.), realized this perfection and became a Tirthankara, the Fordfinder, who discovered the Path to salvation. A near contemporary of the Buddha, he is twenty-fourth in a long succession of Tirthankaras extending back to Rishabhadeva of the Vedic period.[5] Popular Jainism venerates him to the point of worshiping him as a divine source of grace, thus adding a personal, devotional element absent from Jain philosophy. There are two branches of Jainism, divided over whether a monk may or may not wear clothing: the Shvetambaras allow clothes and the Digambaras demand total nudity, as they each believe was the practice of Mahavira. The canon of Jain scriptures (agamas) begins with the sermons of Mahavira, written down by his disciples in ancient languages of Ardhamagadhi and Shauraseni Prakrit, called Purvas. The oldest of these, however, have been lost, and thence the two Jain communities reconstructed different canons from the collections of surviving scriptures, now written in Prakrit and Sanskrit. The scriptures according to the Shvetambara Jains are composed of twelve limbs (angas) and 34 subsidiary texts (angabahya). The first limb is the Acarangasutra, which contains laws for monks and nuns and the most authoritative biography of Mahavira. The Sutrakritanga is the second limb and contains Jain doctrines expounded through disputes with other Hindu and early Buddhist teachings. Among the angabahya the best known is the Uttaradhyayana Sutra, an anthology of dialogues and teachings believed to be the last sermon of the Mahavira, and the Kalpa Sutra, containing biographies of the Jinas. Other scriptures of the Shvetambara canon include the Upasakdasanga Sutra, Dashavaikalika Sutra, and Nandi Sutra. The Digambara Jains believe that most of the orignal Purvas have been lost and dispute the authenticity of the Shvetambara scriptures. To the small surviving portion of the ancient Purvas they add a large number of scholastic expositions (anuyoga). These expositions constitute the scriptures of the Digambara tradition. Among them are the writings of Kundakunda (1st century a.d.): the Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pravacanasara, and Pancastikaya; the Anupreksa of Kartikeya (2nd century a.d.), and the Samadhishataka of Pujyapada (6th century a.d.). The Tattvarthasutra of Umasvati (2nd century a.d.) is a systematization of Jain doctrine into concise aphorisms in the style of the Hindu Vedanta Sutras; its Digambara commentaries include the Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujyapada, the Tattvartharajavartika of Akalanka (8th century a.d.), and the Tattvarthaslokavartika of Vidyanandi (9th century a.d.). The Tattvarthasutra is recognized as authoritative, with only minor differences, by both Digambara and Shvetambara sects. Another exposition which is accepted by both sects is the Sanmatitarka by Siddhasena (5th century a.d.), a treatise on logic concerned with establishing the simultaneous validity of several viewpoints on reality. Surviving fragments of the Purvas spawned commentaries such as the Gomattasara of Nemichandra (950 a.d.) and the Jayadhavala by Virasena (820 a.d.). Legends and biographies of saints are found in the Adipurana of Jinasena (9th century a.d.); their praises are sung in the Dvatrimshika of Siddhasena; while the Aptamimamsa of Samantabadhra (5th century a.d.) gives philosophical arguments for the Jina's perfection, omniscience, and purity. The Mulacara of Vattakera (2nd century a.d.) contains monastic rules comparable to those in the Acarangasutra, while the Ratnakarandasravakacara of Samantabadhra and the Sagaradharmamrita of Ashadhara (13th century a.d.) provide ethical instruction for lay people. This listing does not nearly exhaust the selection of anuyoga cited herein. Among the extra-canonical works, we include several passages from the Nitivakyamrita of Somadeva (10th century a.d.), a Jain classic on polity. The Buddha, born Siddhartha Gautama (c. 581-501 b.c.)[6], taught in India, where Buddhism flourished for nearly fifteen hundred years and where most of its basic scriptures were written. There Buddhism evolved into many schools, of which two major branches survive: Theravada Buddhism which spread to Sri Lanka and throughout Southeast Asia, and Mahayana Buddhism which spread northward to Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan. Eventually Buddhism would nearly disappear from India, and these two branches thence developed independently until this present ecumenical age. Theravada Buddhism, the "teaching of the elders," claims to preserve the original teaching of the Buddha. It teaches the ideal of the arahant (Skt. arhat), one who has achieved liberation from all fetters of selfhood and craving. The goal of liberation, Nibbana (Skt. Nirvana), can be reached through self-purification and proper understanding of the Dhamma (Skt. Dharma), which is specifically the Four Noble Truths: (1) all existence is dukkha, suffering: we must inevitably live with things we dislike and separate from things we like; (2) suffering is due to grasping for existence and craving (tanha) for the pleasures of sense and mind; (3) the cessation of suffering comes with giving up all craving and grasping; and (4) the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path. This path to salvation requires constant practice and training; there is no appeal to divine grace. More important than ascetic practices, which can be counterproductive by promoting a false sense of pride, is the realization that the self has no reality; it is a mirage born of conditioning and is, like the body, impermanent. As there is no self, also there is no God in the sense of a Being with whom one could identify his Self (as in the Hindu Atman). Buddhism demotes the Hindu deities to the level of spirits, conditioned by their own past lives as human beings and hence liable at some time to be reborn; they are not yet liberated. The path of the monk, who has abandoned ties with worldly life, greatly facilitates progress towards the ultimate goal. Lay people generally pursue the more modest goal of gaining merit by ethical living and contributing to the welfare of the order of monks. Yet the Theravada tradition has its lay saints who achieved the highest meditative states and became wholly enlightened. The Theravada scriptures are written in Pali, a language formerly of northwestern India; with the advent of Buddhism Pali became the common language among the Buddhist monks of South Asia. The canon of Theravada scriptures is called the Tipitaka (Skt. Tripitaka) or Three Baskets, and they are divided as follows: the Vinaya Pitaka, collections of rules and precepts for the order of monks; the Sutta Pitaka, discourses and dialogues of the Buddha; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka, scholastic and philosophical treatises. Most of the passages selected from the Tipitaka for this anthology are taken from the books of the second basket, the Sutta Pitaka. The most well-known and widely quoted scripture among them is the Dhammapada or Verses of Righteousness. A book of pithy sayings on Buddhist practice and ethics, it has been called the Buddhist counterpart to the Bhagavad Gita, and it is a basic text for the education of school children in Theravada Buddhist countries. Another basic text is the Khuddaka Patha or the Short Section; it is layman's prayer book containing a simple catechism, precepts, and teachings. Three other important books containing material stemming from the Buddha himself are the Sutta Nipata, the Udana, and the Itivuttaka. They contain short, often rational teachings by the Buddha about the way to the liberation on leading a life of balance and self-control, and condemnations of prejudice and traditionalism. The Theragatha and Therigatha are verses describing the experiences of early monks and nuns, and the Petavatthu is a book of stories of ghosts and spirits: these are among the 15 books comprising the division (nikaya) of the Sutta Pitaka called the Khuddaka Nikaya. The remainder of the Sutta Pitaka contains texts organized by divisions: the Digha Nikaya, long, mainly narrative discourses; the Majjhima Nikaya, medium length discourses on the application of Buddhist teaching or dhamma; the Samyutta Nikaya, prescriptions on Buddhist life connected by subject; and the Anguttara Nikaya, numerically arranged discourses. Beyond the Pali Tipitaka are semi-canonical works of wide acceptance: from the Jataka stories of Buddha's previous lives, the Visuddimagga or Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa, and the Questions of King Milinda where the Greek King Menander (2nd century b.c.) inquires of the Buddhist sage Nagasena. We have made use of the traditional biography of the Buddha, the Buddhacarita by Ashvaghosha (c. 100). Mahayana Buddhism, the Great Vehicle, is divided into many schools, each with its own favorite scriptures. These schools concur with most of the fundamental doctrines found in Theravada Buddhism (which it calls the shravaka-vehicle), including the doctrines of no-self and the conditioned nature of worldly reality. But many Mahayana schools identify an eternal, transcendent reality, Tathata (Suchness), the Truth or Law which governs this Universe. For the enlightened, everything is considered as a manifestation of this Truth; within human beings it is present as the Buddha Nature, the pure Mind, which is realized as one develops on the path to Buddhahood. Suchness is by no means a Creator God in the sense of Western religions; from the Buddhist point of view the word "God" is too often loaded with connotations from other traditions to be helpful for understanding Buddhism. Nevertheless, we find that Mahayana Buddhism contains doctrines of Ultimate Reality and grace that are absent from the doctrines of the Theravada school. In addition, Mahayana Buddhism teaches the ideal of the bodhisattva (the "Bodhisattva-vehicle"), the man of great compassion who gives himself for the liberation of all beings. The absence of the reality of self means that all things are interrelated and indivisible, hence the salvation of the individual is inseparable from compassion for others. A third distinctive feature of Mahayana Buddhism is that certain great Bodhisattvas, which we may regard as the symbolic manifestations of the Buddha's perfections of wisdom, morality, charity, and compassion, are worshipped on the popular level as spiritual benefactors. In popular Buddhism Kuan Yin (Jap. Kannon; Skt. Avalokitesvara), Amitabha Buddha, Samantabhadra, and other Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are worshipped and entreated for grace and succor. The vast Mahayana collections of scriptures are written in Sanskrit and collected in Chinese and Tibetan Tripitakas. Each of the several Mahayana schools of Buddhism venerates certain particular canonical scriptures, supplemented by texts from the founders of the school. Yet despite the proliferation of schools, all of them share a common core of belief and practice, and hence there is much repetition in content among the various scriptures. Most Mahayanists also accept the authority of the texts in the Pali canon. Among the most beloved of Mahayana scriptures is the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-Pundarika). It teaches the doctrine of the One Vehicle, which promises that regardless of their particular sect and way of Buddhist practice, all beings will surely attain Buddhahood. It contains the doctrine of the eternal cosmic Buddha, whose abundant and universal grace is the source of this salvation. Furthermore, the Buddha's salvation is available to all through faith in the Sutra--the emphasis on faith has led some Christian scholars to liken the Lotus Sutra to the Gospel. This sutra is especially central to the Chinese T'ien-t'ai (Jap. Tendai) school and the several sects inspired by Nichiren (1222-1282) in Japan. uddhists of the Pure Land schools, including in Japan the Jodo Shu founded by Honen and the Jodo Shinshu founded by Shinran, rely on the grace of Buddha Amitabha or Buddha Amitayus, the Buddha of Infinite Light, to bring them into the Western Paradise (Sukhavati). Their total reliance on grace, to the exclusion of human efforts which are condemned as a form of self-seeking, is comparable to Lutheran Protestantism. The scriptures of the Pure Land schools include the two Sukhavativyuha Sutras, which describe the vows of Buddha Amitabha to lead all people to that Pure Land, and the Meditation on Buddha Amitayus (Amitayur Dhyana Sutra). The Garland Sutra (Avatamsaka Sutra) is the scripture of the Chinese Hua-yen (Jap. Kegon) school. It is a vast collection full of rich imagery and containing a wide range of teachings. Among them: Buddha is presented as a cosmic principle and a manifestation of that principle, representing Enlightenment itself; all things, all causes, all effects, are interdependent and interpenetrating and should not be regarded from a partial viewpoint; and the career of the bodhisattva is represented as spanning ten stages of ever expanding awareness, inner peace, and compassion for all other beings. The Gandhavyuha Sutra, the thirty-ninth book of the Garland Sutra, sometimes stands on its own. It describes the journeys of a seeker who travels all over India receiving religious advice from fifty-five teachers from all walks of life and ultimately realizes the highest truth. The sutras on the perfection of wisdom (prajnaparamita) are widely studied. This literature comprises sutras of various lengths: from the short Heart Sutra (Prajnaparamita-hridaya Sutra), which takes up less than one page, to massive sutras in 18,000, 25,000 and 100,000 verses. The earliest and most formative for all the wisdom schools is the Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines (Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra), which deals with the doctrine of Emptiness (Sunyata) and the path of the bodhisattva who "courses in perfect wisdom" to realize the six perfections. Perhaps the most famous wisdom sutra is the Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra). Its brief and paradoxical utterances which confound ordinary logic lead one to a deeper apprehension of Emptiness. Out of this tradition arose the meditation (Chin. Ch'an, Jap. Zen) schools of Buddhism, comprising those which teach a gradual enlightenment--the Japanese Soto Zen school--and those which emphasize sudden enlightenment--the Rinzai school which was popularized in the West by Suzuki Daisetzu. Ch'an was much influenced by Taoist naturalism, and this has shaped Zen practice and the Zen ethos in Japan as well. The classic Chinese expression of Ch'an is the Sutra of Hui Neng, also called the Platform Sutra, by Hui Neng the sixth Patriarch (638-713) and founder of the school of sudden enlightenment. This sutra's main teaching is the identity of each person's original mind with Buddha nature. Sudden Zen employs the koan. These are pithy and paradoxical statements which teach emptiness by confounding the intellect, forcing the student back on his own direct apprehension of Reality. The student may only gain entry into truth by intuition, never by logic, and thence he may experience insight (Jap. satori) corresponding with the Buddha's enlightenment. This anthology includes selections from the collection of koans known as the Mumonkan or Gateless Gate. It is a commentary on a group of forty-eight koans compiled by Wu-men Hui-k'ai (Jap. Mumon Ekai) of Sung dynasty China. The Lankavatara Sutra is a philosophical source for much of Zen doctrine; it teaches that false discriminations of subject and object occur because of the seeds of defilement which accumulate in the subconscious mind; in reality all discriminated entities are empty; they are nothing but creations of our mind. A vast compendium of Buddhist teachings which is little known in the West is the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, whose main theme is the Buddha nature which is full of compassion and transcends the impermanent world of activity. Better known is the Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti, in which a lay bodhisattva shows himself superior at argument and possessed of more supernatural powers than a congregation of Buddha's greatest disciples. It teaches that one may aspire to Buddhahood while living in the midst of the world--to be in the world but not of the world. This teaching is fundamental to Nagarjuna's approach, where samsara and nirvana are equated: in other words, nirvana is not a goal in the future but can be actualized in the present. In the Surangama Sutra Buddha teaches one disciple who nearly falls into lust the way to control the mind and hence to progress towards Enlightenment. In the Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala a woman lay follower evinces deep insight as she teaches about the Original Mind which is inherently free of defilement. The Golden Light Sutra (Suvarnaprabhasottama), popular in Japan, includes teachings on political theory. The Sutra of Forty-two Sections is a popular ethical text inspired by Theravada teachings. In Tibet, the great teachers of Mahayana Buddhism: Nagarjuna, Shantideva, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, Dharmakirti, and others, are venerated as great bodhisattvas, and among Tibetan Buddhists their writings are frequently quoted as scripture. The works of the founders of the four traditions of Tibetan Buddhism: Gyalwa Longchenpa, Sakya Pandita, Milarepa, and Lama Tsongkhapa, are also venerated. World Scripture includes excerpts from the works of the above authorities which are available wholly or partly translated into English, in particular Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamaka Karika and Precious Garland and Shantideva's Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life (Bodhisattvacharyavatara). Nagarjuna was a formidable logician who gave the foundational philosophical expression to the doctrine of sunyata and to the identity of samsara and nirvana. Shantideva's work expresses the ethic of the aspiring bodhisattva, who lives in the world unattached to self while doing gracious deeds for the sake of others. Buddhism in Tibet includes both orthodox Mahayana doctrine and esoteric Vajrayana doctrine with its Tantric practices. Tantric practice, as in Hinduism, uses yogic techniques, symbolic ritual, and the transmutation of ordinary desire in order to transcend all desires by identification with Ultimate Reality. The Hevajra Tantra, Kalacakra Tantra, and Guhyasamaja Tantra are excerpted here; also included is the Tibetan Book of the Dead (Bardo Thodol) which contains instructins for the soul on its journey into the next life. The religious world of China can be described as a complex blending of many currents. The indigenous religion, characterized by reverence for ancestors and striving for harmony with the forces of nature, was elevated on the one side by the ethical ideals of Confucianism and on the other by the mystical ideals of Taoism. With the introduction of Buddhism, which after some conflict, harmonized with the older Chinese traditions, it could be said that the traditional Chinese spirit became a blend of the Three Teachings (san chiao): Confucianism in matters of education and ethics; Taoism in regard to personal enlightenment as well as when threatened by sickness or bad fortune; and Buddhism in regard to death and the afterlife--these in addition to the traditional sacrifices offered to the departed of the family and nature spirits. Modern western influences on China, both through Christianity and Communism, have yet to be fully integrated wit h this rich tradition. Because China's religious traditions are so interwoven in the Chinese soul, it may be misleading to discuss Confucianism or Taoism as independent religions, though this is how they are customarily treated in the West. Confucianism is a system mainly of ethical relations, defining values of family life and the administration of the state. It also incorporated the traditional Chinese veneration of ancestors and engendered a cult of Confucius as the official patron of education and culture. Confucius (551-479 b.c.) himself was a reformer who sought to lift up the most humane elements in existing traditions of government and social life. He urged his students to pursue an ideal of conduct, which he refered to as the way of the gentleman or the superior man. The superior man is sincere, filial toward his parents, loyal to his lord, adheres to social and religious forms (li), practices reciprocity--the Golden Rule, and has a broad knowledge of culture. Most of all, he is humane (jen) towards his relations, friends, and associates. Based on the obligations of filial piety and the ethic of humaneness, society is ordered according to the Five Relations: sovereign and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. Yet it can hardly be said that China as a whole has always lived up to Confucius' teaching. The ruler especially should be endowed with the virtues of the superior man, and rule by example, rather than by force. A king who governs by raw force does not deserve the name. A government that does not have the support of the people will lose the Mandate of Heaven and will inevitably be overthrown; hence there can be justification for revolution. Confucius said little about divinity, but Confucianism has a religious side with a deep reverence for Heaven and Earth, whose powers regulate the flow of nature and influence human events. The cosmology of yin and yang predates both Confucianism and Taoism, and is incorporated into both. The ways of man should conform to the principles of the cosmos, or else they will be frustrated. Therefore the Confucianist may consult the I Ching, divining the changes in these natural forces in order to guide his life properly. There is profound respect for nature, for all the myriad things partake of Principle that is also the basis for a sincere mind. The canonical scriptures of Confucianism are the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics are, with some exceptions, the ancient sources which Confucius himself studied, from which he drew his teachings, and upon which he left his interpretive stamp. The Book of Songs (Shih Ching) contains ritual and mythic odes, love songs, and songs describing political life of China's ancient rulers from the tenth to seventh century b.c.e. The Book of History (Shu Ching) contains speeches and decrees attributed to the early Chou dynasty (1122-722 b.c.), especially surrounding the reigns of the Confucian culture heroes: Kings Wen and Wu and the Duke of Chou. The Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch'un Ch'iu) are chronicles of the state of Lu. The Book of Ritual (Li Chi) is a compilation of materials dealing with rites and proper social forms, expressing the conviction that adherence to rules of social and ritual propriety is an outward reflection of inner sincerity and uprightness. The I Ching, (Book of Changes), is canonical for both Confucianism and Taoism, but of its many ancient recensions only the version with Confucius' commentary survives as one of the Five Classics. As mentioned above, the I Ching is traditionally used for divination; but its commentaries imbue the book's oracles with Confucian values. Its yin-yang cosmology lies at the root of a metaphysics that has been adopted by Confucianists and Taoists alike. Taoist handbooks on the I Ching emphasize its use as a manual for divination, a guide for meditation and spiritual growth, and as the foundation for systems of medicine, painting, and martial arts. The Four Books were selected by the Neo-Confucianist scholar Ch'eng I (1032-1107). Together with the commentary by Chu Hsi (1130-1200) they are the standard works of Confucian orthodoxy and the core of traditional Chinese education. They are: the Analects (Lun y), a collection of aphorisms by Confucius himself; the Great Learning (Ta hseh), a foundation text for education; the Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), a philosophical exposition of Confucian thought;[7] and the Mencius, the work of Confucius' greatest successor (372-289 b.c.). In addition to the Five Classics and the Four Books, we have included selections from the Classic on Filial Piety and some passages on the life of Confucius from the classic of Chinese historiography, the Shih Chi by Ssu-ma Ch'ien (c. 145-85 b.c.). The Taoist viewpoint stands in a complementary relationship to Confucianism, emphasizing the free and easy original nature of the individual, unsullied by social convention, against Confucianism's strenuous efforts to mold society and its emphasis on social forms and ethical norms. The two traditions have coexisted in a balance, complementing each other like male and female, summer and winter, yang and yin. A Confucianist statesmen could retire to the country and find joy in the natural aesthetic fostered by Taoism. Taoism teaches that the way to a good society is not through educating man to society's norms, but through stripping them away to arrive at a state of nature. The Taoist sages seek mystical identification with the great pattern of nature, the impersonal Tao, through meditation and trance. In attaining union with nature and its Tao, the sage becomes nameless, formless, and simple, yet paradoxically gains the Tao's te, which may be translated "virtue" or "power." By doing nothing (wu-wei) he attains everything because he will spontaneously unite with nature and find his own original self. But to cling to human distinctions and to try and force a certain result is to go out of harmony with the Tao and accomplish nothing. The ideal Taoist ruler should do nothing to encourage wealth or power, for that would just lead to thievery and usurpation. Rather he should "empty people's minds and fill their bellies" in a state of primitive simplicity. The chief scripture of philosophical Taoism is the Tao Te Ching. It is attributed to the legendary Taoist founder Lao Tzu, who is traditionally believed to have lived slightly before Confucius. Written in a terse and cryptic style, it is difficult to translate, as the many divergent English translations attest. The second Taoist scripture is the Chuang-tzu, whose earliest strata date from the fourth century b.c. Its vivid imagery, in parables and metaphorical tales, contains the essence of early Taoist thought. A chief emphasis of Taoism is the pursuit of long life. In the popular mind, Taoist sages are thought to have attained longevity and to have become virtually immortal. Institutional Taoism--in contrast to the philosophical Taoism of the texts described above--promoted systems of inner hygiene that have become popular throughout the Orient: through proper diet and exercise and by regulating breathing one opens the inner channels of the body to nature's vital forces. The achievements of Chinese medicine and the various schools of martial arts are all practical outgrowths of Taoism and rely upon Taoist science and metaphysics. Taoism also includes a vast canon of mystical and ritual texts, most of them unavailable in English. There is a pantheon of Taoist deities, immortals, and ancestors from whom people may seek favors and beseech expiation for their sins. Taoist texts often emphasize divine rewards and punishments which affect both one's lifespan and destiny in the hereafter. In this anthology, popular religious Taoism is represented by two ethical tracts: the Treatise on Response and Retribution (T'ai-Shang Kan-Ying P'ien) and the Tract of the Quiet Way (Yin Chih Wen). Shinto is the indigenous religion of the Japanese people. It coexists with Confucianism and Buddhism, and the three religions are intertwined, molding Japanese culture, ethics, and attitudes towards life and death. Shinto is centered on the worship of the myriad deities called kami. The kami embody what is numenous, or spiritual. They include the spirits embodied in natural objects and phenomena--wind and thunder, sun, mountains, rivers and trees; ancestral and guardian spirits of the nation and of its clans--especially the Imperial family; and the spirits of national heroes and people who have contributed to civilization. Chief among the kami is Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess and patron deity of Japan. In spite of this polymorphism, the kami operate harmoniously for the world's benefit, and hence they are often regarded as a collective whole and may be referred to by some authors as "God." Unlike western religions, there is not a great distinction between man, nature, and the deities; man is endowed with life and spirit from the kami and his ancestors, and finally he becomes a kami. The kami may be revered anywhere, but most worship takes place in shrines, which are usually located in beautiful natural surroundings. Through devotion to the kami, one can be united with them and attain the state of having a bright, clear mind. Shinto ethics stresses makoto, literally "roundedness," which connotes inner harmony and sincerity. The good is found in sincerity of heart, good will, and cooperation. Evil is to possess an evil heart, selfish desire and hatred, and to cause social discord. Thus, ethics is not defined by a code of commandments; instead it is a matter of inner sincerity and harmonious human relations. The living Shinto faith is mediated by the shrines and the rituals performed there. Every home has its kamidana, or god-shelf, which is the focus of daily offerings and worship. The local shrine with its annual festival is the focus of the community. More important shrines are visited on special occasions: weddings, New Year's Day, and public holidays. The kagura is danced at the shrines by the miko, female attendants who are a survival of an earlier shamanistic heritage. In Shinto outstanding personages, such as the Emperor, are regarded as ikigami, living kami--meaning that the divine is already manifested in them. It is wrong, however, to equate their status with God in an absolute sense (a mistake that is sometimes made in speaking of the Emperor's "divinity"). Shinto is not a religion mediated by written scriptures. Nevertheless, certain writings are central to Shinto and embody its spirit. The classics of Shinto are the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, which contain the mythology of the kami, the founding of Japan and its imperial line, and the records of the early emperors. Shinto ritual texts excerpted include Engishiki on purification and the Kagura-uta, ritual dances. There are a number of oracles associated with Shinto shrines which have wide influence. The Man'yoshu is a collection of poetry from the Nara period period (700-1150). Later sources of Shinto include poetry and didactic texts: One Hundred Poems about the World (Yo no naka hyaku-shu) by Moritake Arakida (c. 1525), which has been called the "Analects of the Ise Shrine" and is used in children's moral education; Divine Injunctions (Jingikun) by Ekken Kiabara (1630-1714); Records of the Divine Wind (Shinpuki) by Mochimasa Hikita (ca. 1660); One Hundred Poems on the Way of Death (Shido hyaku-shu) by Naokata Nakanishi (1643-1709); and One Hundred Poems on the Jeweled Spear (Tamaboko Hyaku-shu) by Norinaga Motoori (1730-1801). There are more than one hundred million adherents of the various traditional religions of Africa, North America, South America, Asia, and the South Pacific. While many of these religions are restricted to village and tribal societies, others are vigorous in urban areas, where they offer dimensions of the sacred in the midst of an industrializing society. Some are even expanding to the status of world religions: the Yoruba religion, for example, has more than 30 million adherents and has spread from its homeland in Nigeria to Brazil and the Caribbean where its variants go by the names Candomble and Santeria. African traditional religion shows belief in a Supreme Being, a transcendent Creator, who is at the same time immanent in His or Her involvement in the lives of human beings and as the Sustainer of the universe. African names for God are built on one or another of God's attributes: as Creator he is called Nzame (Fang), Mu'umba (Swahili), Chineke (Igbo), Ngai (Gikuyu), and Imana (Ruanda-Urundi); as the Supreme Being his name is Oludumare (Yoruba), Mawu (Ewe), and Unkulu-Nkulu (Zulu). As Grandfather or Great Ancestor he is called Nana (Akan) and Ataa Naa Nyonmo (Ga); among the Kalibari she is Opu Tamuno, Great Mother. As Orise (Yoruba) he is the Source of All Being; as Yataa (Kono) and Nyinyi (Bamum) he is everywhere present; Chukwu (Igbo) means Great Providence who determines destinies; Onyame (Akan, Ashanti) means the One who Gives Fullness. As the Spirit of the universe he is Molimo (Bantu); as Heaven or the Spirit of the sky he is called Nhialic (Dinka), Kwoth (Nuer), Soko (Nupe), Olorun (Yoruba); and by the Igbo name Ama-ama-amasi-amasi he is Who is Never Fully Known. Despite the many names and representations of God which vary from one part of Africa to another, the people recognize that they all refer to one Supreme Being, whose dominion extends through the length and breadth of the universe. Below the Supreme Being, and more immediately felt as influencing human affairs, is a constellation of subordinate deities and ancestral spirits. Human beings depend upon the intercession and activity of good deities and spirits to protect them from disease and misfortunes which are often caused by malevolent powers and spirits. Prayers, offerings, rituals, and an ethical life help gain God's blessing and the assistance of good deities and ancestors. African traditional religions also place great importance on the community. Members of the same village or community are expected to help each other and share each other's burdens, as social solidarity is the norm. The community is held together by its traditions, as expressed in ritual and handed down by elders, priests, shamans, and gifted spiritual leaders. Native American religions recognize that the natural world is pervaded by the primary generative spiritual forces. In the Native American world view, all beings are related, both physically and emotionally, and there is no sharp distinction between natural and supernatural entities. This world with its divine powers is symbolized in ritual by the six directions: North, South, East, West, the zenith, and the nadir, and by the living entities which represent them. Hence the zenith is understood as Grandfather (day) Sky, represented by Father Sun and the Thunderbirds; the night sky, especially Grandmother Moon, is understood as female. The nadir is Mother or Grandmother Earth, including all of her aspects which give life and nourishment: Water, Corn Mother, Buffalo Mother, etc. In many modern Native American cultures, the totality of the spiritual forces may be referred to by a single term, examples being K'che Manitou in the Ojibwa language of the Algonquin and Wakan Tanka in Lakot of the Sioux. The goal of Native American religions is wholeness, to bring individuals, the community, and all their relations (Earth, plants, animals, spirits) into harmonious balance, to complete the circles of life, to walk in beauty. Native American rituals are oriented toward communal wholeness. Thus, the ritual use of tobacco, unique to the Americas, creates communion both among the participants and with the sacred beings to whom tobacco is offered in the sacred pipe. In many rituals, the participants strip themselves to their essential being in order to approach the spirits with humility and openness. Rituals of the sweat lodge, fasting, the sun dance, the vision quest, and those using psychoactive substances all serve to create the means for direct apprehension and communication with spiritual beings. Through these means, individuals develop relationships with spiritual entities that enable them to successfully live their lives for the good of their communities. Shamanism is widespread in most traditional religions. The shaman is specially gifted with the ability to communicate with the spiritual world. Since the unseen spiritual forces are recognized as in control of many phenomena on earth, a shaman may be called upon to heal physical and mental illness, to ferret out criminals, or to discover the reason for bad luck. The shaman may go into a trance for many hours, accompanied by dancing and the presentation of ritual objects. Other participants may join in the trance as well, as they try to cure the afflicted soul. The traditional religions of the South Pacific are represented by a tradition from Tahiti and a legend of the Maori of New Zealand. Maori and Polynesian legends celebrate the prowess of those ancestors who bested the elements, explored and settled new islands, and won preeminence over their brethren. These heroes sometimes attained their goals through clever ruses, sometimes were adept at magic, and sometimes showed bravery in war. Some emerged as heroes despite low social status; some were impetuous and had to atone for their own mistakes; many had to deal with strife within their own families. Yet underneath is a deep longing for peace and harmony, even though it is rarely attained. The new religions of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with an aggregate membership of over 130 million people, comprise the fastest growing segment of the religious life on this planet. They demonstrate the continued vitality and freedom of the spirit, which ever seeks to break out of conventional institutional forms. Most of the new religions may be regarded as offshoots of older religious traditions. Although they are often grouped together on sociological grounds, from the viewpoint of their religious content they resemble their parent religions far more than they resemble each other. Some new religions have been accepted by their parent communities as expressions of orthodoxy: for example the Hare Krishna movement is accepted by many Hindus and some of the African independent churches have been reconciled with the leaders of mainline Christianity. Others, like the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the followers of Yogi Bhajan, claim that they are continuous with an established world religion despite conflict with its leaders and institutions. We have alluded previously to the problems of defining scriptures for these new religions. In some cases the founder is still alive and giving messages which have yet to be digested into scripture. Many religions which regard themselves as continuous with their parent tradition utilize the parent tradition's scripture in teaching their doctrines. A few have distinctive texts suitable for inclusion in World Scripture--be they official scripture, an interpretation of an older scripture, the informal record of new revelations, or a collection of the founder's speeches. First, there are new sects and movements in Hinduism both in India and the West, for example, the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, the Theosophical Society, Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Ananda Marga, Transcendental Meditation, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishna), and movements centering on Meher Baba, Sathya Sai Baba, Bhagwan Rajneesh, and others. Some of these movements are eclectic and controversial in relation to their orthodox traditions, yet to a large extent their teachings are founded upon traditional scriptures which are well represented in World Scripture. For example, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness is a sect of Vaishnavite Hinduism which relies upon the Bhagavad Gita and the Srimad Bhagavatam. The same consideration applies to the western missions of Buddhists (Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche, Hsuan Hua), Sikhs (Yogi Bhajan, Kirpal Singh), and Taoists (George Ohsawa, Macrobiotics). The rapid industrialization of Japan in the last century brought with it the rise of a number of new religions, many of which have missionary presences around the world. Several Buddhist lay movements are offshoots of the branch of Japanese Buddhism founded by Nichiren (1222-1282) and rely upon the Lotus Sutra as their scripture. These include Rissh-o K-osei Kai, whose leader, Nikky-o Niwano, has been much involved in international peace movements, and S-oka Gakkai, founded by J-ozaburo Makiguchi, whose political wing, the Komeito party, is a strong force in the Japanese Diet. Another new religion with Buddhist roots is Agon-shu, which uses the Dhammapada and other Theravada sutras as scripture combined with esoteric Shingon Buddhist practices. The new religions with Shinto roots have unique scriptures of their own. First among the new religions of Japan was Tenrikyo. Founded by Miki Nakayama (1798-1887), its central scriptures are three collections of her revelations: Mikagura-uta, Ofudesaki, and K-oki. They teach that God, Tsukihi, is the divine Parent who longs for people to purify their minds from defiling "dust" and receive healing power and grace. Tsukihi means Sun and Moon, indicating the union of yin and yang, male and female. The main sanctuary at Tenri is believed to be at the place of the creation of the world, and in the ritual ten couples dance around the central column of this shrine which symbolizes the central pillar of the earth. The millennium is coming when heavenly dew will descend on the shrine at Tenri and enter the planet's omphalos. Tenriky-o encourages voluntary charitable activity and loving deeds to remove the dust that accumulates on one's character. Other new religions have combined Shinto with ideas from Christianity, Buddhism, and Shamanism. -Omoto Kyo, The Great Foundation, was founded by Nao Deguchi in 1892. Internationalist from the beginning (i.e., advocating the use of Esperanto), and for a time suppressed by the government, it teaches that God is the all-pervading Spirit, demanding that people work for unity and universal brotherhood. We include excerpts from its scripture Michi-no-Shiori. Sekai Kyusei Kyo, The Church of World Messianity, was founded by Mokichi Okada (1882-1955), a former staff member of Omoto Kyo who in 1926 received revelations and was empowered to be a channel of God's Healing Light (jorei) to remove illness, poverty, and strife from the world and inaugurate a new messianic age. Okada's teaching is represented by the scripture Johrei, which has been edited and translated by the Society of Johrei, an offshoot of Okada's movement. The founder of Mahikari, Yoshikazu Okada (1901-1974), was a member of Sekai Kyusei Kyo before receiving his own revelations in 1959 which have been collected into a scripture called Goseigen. The two sects Mahikari and Sukyo Mahikari both practice a nearly identical form of healing called okiyome, in which God's Light (jorei) is focused through a pendant worn by the practitioner called the omitama. The doctrines of Seicho-no-Ie, that mind is the sole reality and that the body can be healed through faith and mental purification, bear a marked resemblance to those of Christian Science. The teachings of its founder Masaharu Taniguchi, who had also been a member of Omoto Kyo, are represented by the Nectarean Shower of Holy Doctrines, Song of the Angel, and Holy Sutra for Spiritual Healing. Perfect Liberty Kyodan, founded by Miki Tokuharu in 1926, combines elements of Shinto and Buddhism. It worships "the Supreme Spirit of the universe" but also stresses the role of ancestral spirits as part of one's karma. In stressing Life is Art, Perfect Liberty Kyodan draws upon the Buddhist teaching of non-self, by which what is truly authentic in a person comes to spontaneous expression. Korea, since the 1960s, has seen the emergence of religious movements seeking to rediscover the indigenous Korean religion, that ancient religion which is believed to have prevailed prior to the importation of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Christianity. These movements include the Tan Goon Church, named after Tan Goon, the ancestor of the Korean people; the Tae Jong Church, the Han Il Church, the Chun Do Church, and countless small groups of folk relgionists. The ancient thought of Korea has been preserved in several scriptures, the most important being the Chun Boo Kyung. This scripture is a chart of 81 Chinese characters, arranged in a square of nine rows and nine columns. The chart is quite cryptic, and its characters can be read in every possible combination of rows, columns, and diagonals. Yet it has yielded extensive interpretations revealing the principle of Heaven which governs man and the cosmos and by which life can pros per. This natural law is expressed by the significant numbers one to ten. The Baha'i Faith grew out of nineteenth century Islam, and much of its teaching is congruent with traditional Islamic, and especially Sufi, ideas of man's mystic love for and union with God. It departs from Islam, however, with the proclamation that humanity has entered a new age of world unity and that the spiritual impulse for the new age has been given by God's new messenger and messiah, Baha'u'llah. The Baha'i scriptures have been gleaned and assembled from the many letters of Baha'u'llah, his forerunner the Bab, and his first disciples. We have included selections from Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah, the Book of Certitude (Kitab-i-Iqan), the Hidden Words of Baha'u'llah, and Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. Now more than five million strong, there are Baha'i communities in most nations of the world. Among the Christian-based sects and new religions, many retain the Bible as their scripture, although it is given distinctive interpretation through the revelations to their founders. Among them are the Seventh-Day Adventists and the Jehovah's Witnesses, sects born out of nineteenth century American Protestant millennialism which have large missionary presences throughout the world. In the twentieth century, new Christian groups tend to be more charismatic. They include the independent churches in Africa such as the Kimbanguists in Zaire and the Brotherhood of the Cross and Star in Nigeria. The Rastafarians are prominent in the Caribbean. Other new religions in the Christian family supplement the Bible with their own distinctive scriptural texts. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with a membership exceeding seven million, has three revealed scriptures: the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and Pearl of Great Price. The Book of Mormon is a translation from golden plates received by Joseph Smith after the visitation of the angel Moroni.[8] It tells the story of God's dealings with ancient inhabitants of the Americas and Jesus' appearances among them. Doctrine and Covenants contains revelations, prophecies, and decrees by Joseph Smith, Brigham Young, and other early Latter-day Saint leaders by which the church was constituted. The Pearl of Great Price is a selection of revelations and translations, including translations of certain Egyptian papyri containing writings purported to be by Abraham and Moses and an autobiographical account of Joseph Smith's call. These scriptures teach distinctive doctrines concerning the nature of God, salvation, and the hereafter, and instuct on rituals such as the baptism of the dead and eternal Temple marriages. The Church of Christ, Scientist relies on Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. It contains her spiritualized interpretations of biblical texts, where she meditated especially on the healing miracles of Jesus. Christian Science teaches that mind is the sole reality, while belief in the reality of matter is an illusion. Disease and death, being properties of matter, are also illusory, and hence disease can be healed through mental power alone. The Unification Church, founded in Korea by Sun Myung Moon in 1954, is another new religion in the Christian tradition. It is represented by Divine Principle, a doctrinal text, and collections of the founder's sermons. They teach that human beings were created to fulfill God's ideal of goodness and harmony on this earth, but the Fall of Man destroyed God's ideal by corrupting human love with self-centered, satanic elements. Jesus came as the perfect incarnation of God's love, with the purpose of restoring God's ideal, but because the people failed to unite with him during his lifetime the promise of the Kingdom of God on earth remained unfulfilled. Today people are again called to overcome selfishness, extend themselves sacrificially to love their enemies, and thereby make a new foundation to receive the Messiah, who comes in this age as the True Parents, to restore the universal family of God. Other new religions take their inspiration from sources outside of the major world religions. These sources include the traditions of Hermetic philosophy, alchemy, witchcraft, nature religions, spiritualism, astrology, and psychology. In the West there has been a proliferation of New Age and human potential groups, and as a representative of this group, we have chosen passages from the texts of the Church of Scientology, founded by L. Ron Hubbard. His writings describe a systematic psychological technique for purifying the mind from negative influences embedded in the subconscious mind in order to realize a state of "clear" and spiritual freedom. Acknowledgments Compilation of World Scripture was possible only through the cooperation of a great many scholars and religious thinkers who devoted themselves unselfishly to the massive task of assembling and sifting through countless passages from scripture. The advisors and contributors who materially participated in this task, or who kindly reviewed the completed manuscript to assure that their tradition was represented fairly, are listed on the pages following the title page. In addition, I wish to acknowledge the words of encouragement and valuable advice which came from many sources: from Prof. Wande Abimbola, Dr. M. Darrol Bryant, Rev. Kanake Dhammadina, Dr. Frank K. Flinn, Prof. Durwood Foster, Rabbi David J. Goldberg, Prof. Naofusa Hiraii, Dr. Emefie Ikenga-Metuh, Prof. David Kalupahana, Dr. Frank Kaufmann, Dr. Quan-tae Kim, Robert Kittel, Acharya Sushil Kumarji Maharaj, Dan May, Dr. Richard Quebedeaux, Thomas Selover, Bishop Krister Stendahl, Dr. Robert Stockman, Dr. Thomas G. Walsh, Jin Seung Yoo, and from my students at the Unification Theological Seminary. Special thanks goes to Dr. Yoshihiko Masuda, who labored to secure permissions to reprint the passages and gave many years of devoted service to the project. Robert Brooks, Carrol Ann Brooks, Hal MacKenzie, Betty Lancaster, Allan Gonzalez, Robert Selle, Louis Rayapen, David Hose, Gerry Servito, and Thomas Cromwell all worked to enable this book to see the light of day. Rev. Chung Hwan Kwak, President of the International Religious Foundation, offered precious spiritual guidance and unstinting financial support. Behind the efforts of these individuals lies the larger project of interreligious dialogue, which has created the spiritual and intellectual climate which has made this anthology possible. In particular, through the conferences of the International Religious Foundation, where most of the editors have sat together to discuss common themes and problems among the religions, we have come to a consciousness of the common ground among religions. These conferences have also fostered a spirit of interreligious alliance, as we have come to recognize that the religious perspective on human life, which begins with acknowledging Ultimate Reality, needs defense and support from religious people everywhere, regardless of tradition or creed. Such interfaith discussions created the spiritual foundation upon which World Scripture could be created with the cooperation of many individuals in the spirit of genuine dialogue. Finally, I wish to give grateful acknowledgment to the Reverend Sun Myung Moon, who first conceived the idea for World Scripture and commissioned its preparation. In his address to the first Assembly of the World's Religions in 1985, he called the religious leaders of the world to discover their common purposes and bonds of friendship with which to create an alliance of all the world's religions: As far as I know, God is not sectarian. He is not obsessed with minor details of doctrine. We should quickly liberate ourselves from theological conflict which results from blind attachment to doctrines and rituals, and instead focus on living communication with God. I think we urgently need to purify the religious atmosphere into one in which believers can have living faith and every soul can communicate with God. In God's parental heart and His great love, there is no discrimination based on color or nationality. There are no barriers between countries or cultural traditions, between East and West, North and South. Today God is trying to embrace the whole of humankind as His children. Through interreligious dialogue and harmony we should realize one ideal world of peace, which is God's purpose of creation and the common ideal of humankind. World Scripture has been written to further this noble goal. Notes 1. An organizational plan rooted in Hinduism is found in Whitall N. Perry, A Treasury of Traditional Wisdom. Perry divides his anthology of scriptural texts and mystical passages according to the three paths of karma yoga, (action), bhakti yoga (devotion), and jnana yoga (knowledge), although he does not explicitly acknowledge this indebtedness to the Hindu tradition. 2. Even within the Christian family, the relative value of faith (the grace of Christ) and works (obedience to the moral law) for salvation has been a source of contention. Most Protestants stress salvation by faith alone, with good works being a consequence of faith. Roman Catholics, Orthodox, and some Protestants (i.e., Anglicans) see faith and works as contributing synergistically to realization of the highest good. 3. Where a scripture is known by more than one name, or by both an English name and a title in the original language, it will be cited by the name which appears first in this introduction. 4. There are variations in the versification of the several English renderings of the Qur'an. This anthology has selected the versification employed by M. Pickthall's translation as a standard. 5. He is attested to by the Rig Veda (10.136), the Srimad Bhagavatam (5.3.20), and the Shiva Purana (7.2.9). Mahavira's predecessor, Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, is mentioned with Mahavira in the Pali Buddhist scriptures. 6. The Buddha's chronology is uncertain; the available data has suggested a range of dates for the death of the Buddha from 544 b.c.--the date officially accepted by much of the Buddhist world--to 483 b.c. Evidence suggests that he lived about twenty years after the passing of Mahavira. 7. These two books were taken from chapters 39 and 28 of the Book of Ritual. 8. On the meaning of 'translation,' see p. 633n. AddictionAddiction to liquor, drugs, or gambling is a cause of people's downfall in every society. These so-called victimless crimes render man's spirit blind to the light of God and deaf to the promptings of his conscience. Addictions typically lead to antisocial behavior, destroy families, and promote criminal acts. Despite contemporary medical models of addiction which regard it as a disease, the world's religions generally affirm that people are responsible for their own actions and should be taught to steer clear of addictions. You who believe! Intoxicants and gambling... are an abomination--of Satan's handiwork: eschew such that you may prosper. Satan's plan is to stir up enmity and hatred among you by means of liquor and gambling, and to hinder you from the remembrance of God and from prayer. Will you not then abstain? Islam. Qur'an 5.90-91 Men who are grave and wise, Though they drink, are mild and masters of themselves; But those who are benighted and ignorant Are devoted to drink, and more so daily. Be careful, each of you, of your deportment-- What heaven confers, when once lost, is not regained. Confucianism. Book of Songs, Ode 196 Do not get drunk with wine, for that is debauchery; but be filled with the Spirit. Christianity. Ephesians 5.18 Woe to those who rise early in the morning, that they may run after strong drink, who tarry late into the evening till wine inflames them! They have lyre and harp, timbrel and flute and wine at their feasts, but they do not regard the deeds of the Lord, or see the work of his hands. Judaism and Christianity. Isaiah 5.11-12 Ephesians 5.18: Cf. Wadhans, M.1, p. 239; Acts 2.1-18, p. 577. Who has woe? Who has sorrow? Who has strife? Who has complaining? Who has wounds without cause? Who has redness of eyes? Those who tarry long after wine, those who go to try mixed wine. Do not look at wine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup and goes down smoothly. At the last it bites like a serpent, and stings like an adder. Your eyes will see strange things, and your mind utter perverse things. You will be one who lies down in the midst of the [rolling] sea, like one who totters to and fro like the top of a mast. "They struck me," you will say, "but I was not hurt; they beat me, but I did not feel it. When shall I awake? I will seek another drink." Judaism and Christianity. Proverbs 23.29-35 Rabbi Isaac said, quoting Proverbs 23.31, "Wine makes the faces of the wicked red in this world, but pale in the world to come." Rabbi Me'ir said, "The tree of which Adam ate was a vine, for it is wine that brings lamentation to man." Judaism. Talmud, Sanhedrin 70ab What are the six channels for dissipating wealth? Taking intoxicants; loitering in the streets at unseemly hours; constantly visiting shows and fairs; addiction to gambling; association with evil companions; the habit of idleness.... Gambling and women, drink and dance and song, Sleeping by day and prowling around by night, Friendship with wicked men, hardness of heart, These causes six bring ruin to a man. Gambling and drinking, chasing after those Women as dear as life to other men, Following the fools, not the enlightened ones, He wanes as the darker half of the moon. The drunkard always poor and destitute; Even while drinking, thirsty; haunting bars; Sinks into debt as into water stone, Soon robs his family of their good name. One who habitually sleeps by day And looks upon the night as time to rise Licentious and a drunkard all the time, He does not merit the rank of householder. Buddhism. Digha Nikaya iii.182-85, Sigalovada Sutta Excessive eating is prejudicial to health, to fame, and to bliss in Heaven; it prevents the acquisition of spiritual merit and is odious among men; one ought, for these reasons, to avoid it carefully. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 2.57 The Gambler: These nuts that once tossed on tall trees in the wind but now smartly roll over the board, how I love them! As alluring as a draught of Soma on the mountain, the lively dice have captured my heart. My faithful wife never quarreled with me or got angry; to me and my companions she was always kind, yet I've driven her away for the sake of the ill-fated throw of a die. Chorus: His wife's mother loathes him, his wife rejects him, he implores people's aid but nowhere finds pity. A luckless gambler is no more good than an aged hack to be sold on the market. Other men make free with the wife of a man whose money and goods the eager dice have stolen. His father and mother and brothers all say, "He is nothing to us. Bind him, put him in jail!" The Gambler: I make a resolve that I will not go gaming. So my friends depart and leave me behind. But as soon as the brown nuts are rattled and thrown, to meet them I run, like an amorous girl. Chorus: To the meeting place the gambler hastens. Shall I win? he asks himself, hoping and trembling, But the throws of the dice ruin his hopes, giving the highest scores to his opponent. Dice, believe me, are barbed: they prick and they trip, they hurt and torment and cause grievous harm. To the gambler they are like children's gifts, sweet as honey, but they turn on the winner in rage and destroy him. Fifty-three strong, this band jumps playfully, like Savitri, the god whose statutes are true. They pay no heed to the anger of the powerful; the king himself bows down before them. Downward they roll, then jump in the air! Though handless, they master those who have hands! Unearthly coals thrown down on the board, though cold they burn the player's heart to ashes. Abandoned, the wife of the gambler grieves. Grieved too, is his mother as he wanders to nowhere. Afraid and in debt, ever greedy for money, he steals in the night to the home of another. He is seized by remorse when he sees his wife's lot, beside that of another with well-ordered home. In the morning, however, he yokes the brown steeds and at the evening falls stupid before the cold embers. The Gambler to the dice: To the mighty chieftain of your whole band, the one who has become the king of your troop, to him I show my ten fingers extended. No wealth do I withhold! I speak truly! Chorus: Steer clear of dice. Till well your own field. Rejoice in your portion and value it highly. See there, O Gambler, your cattle, your wife. This is the counsel of the noble Savitri. The Gambler to the dice: Grant us your friendship, have mercy upon us! Do not overwhelm us with your fierce attack! May your anger and evil intention be assuaged! Let the brown dice proceed to ensnare another! Hinduism. Rig Veda 10.34 AdulteryThe foremost of sinful actions is adultery or fornication. No other sin has such a baneful effect on the spiritual life. Because it is committed in secret, by mutual consent, and often without fear of the law, adultery is especially a sin against God and against the goal of life. Modern secular societies can do little to inhibit adultery and sexual promiscuity. Only the norms of morality which are founded on religion can effectively curb this sin.Most of the passages collected here condemn adultery, fornication, and sexual promiscuity in general. A number of passages seek to demarcate limits of behavior that verge on fornication. At the conclusion are passages on related behaviors: divorce and homosexuality. Approach not adultery: for it is a shameful deed and an evil, opening the road to other evils. Islam. Qur'an 17.32 Let marriage be held in honor among all, and let the marriage bed be undefiled; for God will judge the immoral and the adulterous. Christianity. Hebrews 13.4 We find that to every sin God is long-suffering, except to the sin of unchastity. Rabbi Azariah said, "All things can God overlook save lewdness." Judaism. Midrash, Leviticus Rabbah 23.9 Be sure of this, that no fornicator or impure man... has any inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God. Christianity. Bible, Ephesians 5.5 Neither fornicate, for whosoever does that shall meet the price of sin--doubled shall be the chastisement for him on the Resurrection Day. Islam. Qur'an 25.68-69 Violating and misusing love is the gravest of all crimes. Abusing love is a greater crime than cutting the universal root of life [murder]. Unification Church. Sun Myung Moon, 3-20-77 Both learning and the practice of the Teaching are lost to him who is given to sexual intercourse. He employs himself wrongly. That is what is ignoble in him. Buddhism. Sutta Nipata 815 A wise man has nothing to do with lust. Lust is nothing but death, and lack of it is serenity. How can one who perceives this indulge in wanton behavior? Jainism. Acarangasutra 2.61 Four misfortunes befall a careless man who commits adultery: acquisition of demerit, disturbed sleep, third, blame; and fourth, a state of woe. There is acquisition of demerit as well as evil destiny. Brief is the joy of the frightened man and woman. The king imposes a heavy punishment. Hence no man should frequent another man's wife. Buddhism. Dhammapada 309-10 When a family declines, ancient traditions are destroyed. With them are lost the spiritual foundations for life, and the family loses its sense of unity. Where there is no sense of unity, the women of the family become corrupt; and with the corruption of its women, society is plunged into chaos. Social chaos is hell for the family and for those who have destroyed the family as well. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 1.40-42 Immorality in the house is like a worm in the vegetables. Judaism. Talmud, Sota 3b Do not approach thy neighbor's wife or maids. Taoism. Tract of the Quiet Way Let those who cannot find a match keep chaste till God give them independence by His grace. Islam. Qur'an 24.33 Whoever has illicit affairs with the wives of his relatives or friends, either by force or through mutual consent, he is to be known as an outcast. Buddhism. Sutta Nipata 123 The philanderer lusting after numerous women does not give up seeking in others' homes. What he does daily only brings regrets-- In sorrow and greed he is shrivelled up. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Dhanasari, M.5, p. 672 Sutta Nipata 815: Cf. Sutra of Forty-two Sections 25, p. 929. A man should not think incontinently of another's wife, much less address her to that end; for such a man will be reborn in a future life as a creeping insect. He who commits adultery is punished both here and hereafter; for his days in this world are cut short, and when dead he falls into hell. Hinduism. Vishnu Purana 3.11 The lips of a loose woman drip honey, and her speech is smoother than oil; but in the end she is bitter as wormwood, sharp as a two-edged sword. Her feet go down to death; her steps follow the path to Sheol; she does not take heed to the path of life; her ways wander, and she does not know it.... Drink water from your own cistern, flowing water from your own well. Should your springs be scattered abroad, streams of water in the streets? Let them be for yourself alone, and not for strangers with you. Let your fountain be blessed, and rejoice in the wife of your youth, a lovely hind, a graceful doe. Let her affection fill you at all times with delight, be infatuated always by her love. Why should you be infatuated, my son, with a loose woman and embrace the bosom of an adventuress? For a man's ways are before the eyes of the Lord, and he watches all his paths. The iniquities of the wicked ensnare him, and he is caught in the toils of his sin. He dies for lack of discipline, and because of his great folly he is lost. Judaism and Christianity. Proverbs 5.3-23 If you are handsome, do not go astray after lewdness, but honor your Creator, and fear Him, and praise Him with the beauty which He has given you. Judaism. Pesikta Rabbati 127a The body is not meant for immorality, but for the Lord... Do you not know that your bodies are members of Christ? Shall I therefore take the members of Christ and make them members of a prostitute? Never! Do you not know that he who joins himself a prostitute becomes one body with her? For, as it is written, "The two shall become one flesh." But he who is united to the Lord becomes one spirit with him. Shun immorality. Every other sin which a man commits is outside the body; but the immoral man sins against his own body. Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God? Christianity. 1 Corinthians 6.13-19 Offering presents to a woman, romping with her, touching her ornaments and dress, sitting with her on a bed, all these are considered adulterous acts. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 8.357 A monk who, with sexual desire and a perverse intention, contacts a woman, holding her hand or holding a braid of her hair or rubbing against any part of her body, commits an offense, requiring formal meetings of the Order for its exoneration. Buddhism. Vinaya Pitaka Because the daughters of Zion are haughty and walk with outstretched necks, glancing wantonly with their eyes, mincing along as they go, tinkling with their feet; the Lord will smite with a scab the heads of the daughters of Zion, and the Lord will lay bare their secret parts. Judaism and Christianity. Isaiah 3.16-17 Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and be modest. That is purer for them. Lo! God is Aware of what they do. And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and be modest, and to display of their adornment only that which is apparent, and to draw their veils over their bosoms, and not to reveal their adornment save to their own husbands or fathers... or children who know naught of women's nakedness. And let them not stamp their feet so as to reveal what they hide of their adornment. And turn unto God together, O believers, in order that ye may succeed. Islam. Qur'an 24.30-32 1 Corinthians 6.13-19: Cf. 1 Corinthians 3.16-17, p. 211, on the sacredness of the human body as God's temple. Paul is quoting Genesis 2.24, p. 252. Vinaya Pitaka: The Vinaya Pitaka is the standard text of monastic discipline for Theravada monks. Qur'an 24.30-32: Wearing the veil by Muslim women was instituted in the Qur'an as a practical protection against the temptation to adultery. A master has said, "He who beholds a beautiful woman should say, 'Blessed be He who hath created such in His universe.'" But is even mere looking permitted? The following can surely be raised as an objection: "Thou shalt keep from every evil thing" [Deuteronomy 23.10] implies that one should not look intently at a beautiful woman, even if she be unmarried, nor at a married woman, even if she be ugly, nor at a woman's gaudy garments, nor at male and female asses or at a pig and a sow or at fowls when they are mating. Judaism. Talmud, Aboda Zara 20ab The lawful thing which God hates most is divorce. Islam. Hadith of Abu Dawud The Lord was witness to the covenant between you and the wife of your youth, to whom you have been faithless, though she is your companion and your wife by covenant.... "For I hate divorce," says the Lord. Judaism and Christianity. Malachi 2.14-16 The husband receives his wife from the gods; he does not wed her according to his own will; doing what is agreeable to the gods, he must always support her while she is faithful. "Let mutual fidelity continue until death;" this may be considered as a summary of the highest law for husband and wife. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 9.95, 101 And Pharisees came up and in order to test him [Jesus] asked, "Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife?" He answered them, "What did Moses command you?" They said, "Moses allowed a man to write a certificate of divorce, and to put her away." But Jesus said to them, "For your hardness of heart he wrote you this commandment. But from the beginning of creation, 'God made them male and female.' 'For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh.' So they are no longer two but one flesh. What therefore God has joined together, let not man put asunder." And in the house the disciples asked him about this matter. And he said to them, "Whoever divorces his wife and marries another, commits adultery against her; and if she divorces her husband and marries another, she commits adultery." Christianity. Mark 10.2-12 Aboda Zarah 20ab: Cf. Treatise on Response and Retribution, p. 932. Hadith of Abu Dawud: The Islamic law on divorce is found in Qur'an 2.226-32. There a waiting period of four months is prescribed, to allow the decision to be reconsidered. Malachi 2.14-16: Christian and Jewish marriage is not like a secular contract which can be anulled at will; it is a covenant to which God is witness and third partner. Laws of Manu 9.95, 101: Divorce is permitted, but it is not done by virtuous people. According to Narada Dharma Sutra 12.92-100 and Laws of Manu 9.76-81, a man may divorce his wife on the grounds of adultery, profligacy, procuring an abortion, drunkenness, malicious speech, or failure to produce a male heir. A woman may divorce her husband if he becomes a religious ascetic, is impotent, is expelled from his caste, or is long absent. A waiting period of one to eight years is normally required. You shall not lie with a male as with a woman; it is an abomination. Judaism and Christianity. Leviticus 18.22 The bodhisattva does not approach the five kinds of unmanly men in order to be friendly with or close to them. Buddhism. Lotus Sutra 14 And Lot said to his people, "You commit lewdness, such as no people in creation ever committed before you. Do you indeed come in unto males?" Islam. Qur'an 29.28-29 God gave them up to dishonorable passions. Their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural, and the men likewise gave up natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another, men committing shameless acts with men and receiving in their own persons the due penalty for their error. Christianity. Romans 1.26-27 Mark 10.2-12: In the parallel attestation in Matthew 19.3-9, there is an exception for 'unchastity.' Current biblical scholarship does not see this exception as sanctioning divorce on the grounds of marital infidelity. 'Unchastity' is not the same word as adultery; it is thought to refer to the incestuous relations practiced by some pagans before their conversion to Christianity. Jesus is quoting Genesis 1.27, p. 282 and Genesis 2.24, p. 252. Lotus Sutra 14: The 'five kinds of unmanly men' includes homosexuals, hermaphrodites, eunuchs, and those suffering from various kinds of impotence. The Sangha did not want anyone to join the order as an escape; it likewise barred from membership debtors who wanted to renege on their debts and young novices who did not have their parents' permission. Qur'an 29.28-29: This passage refers to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah. According to the Bible (Genesis 19.4-11), when two angels came to Lot's home to warn him of the city's impending destruction, the mob demanded that Lot give the men over to them, that they might rape and sodomize them. Lot defended them and offered his daughters instead; at which point the mob sought to lay hands on Lot, but the angels rescued him. Romans 1.26-27: The 'due penalty' probably refers to venereal disease. In addition, there is the spiritual damage to the personality of one who engages in such behavior. AnxietyA person who has faith and confidence in God's provision need not worry about worldly cares. For one who has deep insight into Reality, concerns about possessions and acquisitions seem ephemeral and meaningless. Hence the scriptures counsel the traveler in the spirit to avoid meaningless attachments to possessions, position, or fame. The faithless person, being attached to these things, becomes anxious when they are lacking, and he is constantly driven to grasp after them. But in the life of faith there is a simplicity and detachment that produces neither anxiety nor care. To live like the birds of the air or the animals of the forest, for whom God provides the necessities of life; to trust in God and the spiritual principle that God will protect and provide for those who put Heaven first; to be selfless, and hence unconcerned about such mundane matters as life or death: this is the attitude of the wise man.Any who believes in his Lord has no fear, either of loss or of any injustice. Islam. Qur'an 72.13 All are afraid of death; nowhere is there fearlessness. But the virtuous saints never fear death and the state after death. Hinduism. Matsya Purana 212.25 My Lord, boundless as The sun and moon Lighting heaven and earth; How then can I have concerns About what is to be? Shinto. Man'yoshu XX Qur'an 72.13: Cf. Qur'an 2.112, p. 770. One who has mastered Dhamma, one much learned, Has no such thought as, Ah! 'tis well with me! Look you! how tortured is he that has possessions! One to another human folk are bound. Buddhism. Udana 13 Day in, day out, I am with Amida; Let the sun set whenever it pleases. How grateful indeed I am! Namu-Amida-Butsu! Buddhism. Myokonin Unless the Lord builds the house, those who build it labor in vain. Unless the Lord watches over the city, the watchman stays awake in vain. It is in vain that you rise up early and go late to rest, eating the bread of anxious toil; for he gives his beloved sleep. Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 127.1-2 Do not strain your eyes in longing for the things We have given for enjoyment to parties of them, the splendor of the life of the world, through which We test them: but the provision of your Lord is better and more enduring.... We do not ask you to provide sustenance; We provide it for you. The fruit of the hereafter is for righteousness. Islam. Qur'an 20.131-32 Those who surrender to God all selfish attachments are like the leaf of a lotus floating clean and dry in water. Sin cannot touch them. Renouncing their selfish attachments, those who follow the path of service work with body, senses, and mind for the sake of self-purification. Those whose consciousness is unified abandon all attachment to the results of action and attain supreme peace. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 5.10-12 How many animals do not carry their own provision! God provides for them and for you. He is Alert, Aware. Islam. Qur'an 29.60 Udana 13: Cf. Suhi, M.5 804; Myokonin: The Myokonin is a collection of poems by Japanese Pure Land saints. Pure Land Buddhists keep the mind fixed on Ultimate Reality by constantly chanting Namu-Amida-Butsu, All Hail to Amitabha Buddha; see Meditation on Buddha Amitayus 3.30, p. 833. Qur'an 20.131-32: An important element in the attitude of trust in God's provision is to avoid comparing oneself with others. Bhagavad Gita 5.10-12: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 2.47-50, p. 941; Srimad Bhagavatam 9, p. 992. In the Changes it is said, "If a man is agitated in mind, and his thoughts go hither and thither, only those friends on whom he fixes his conscious thoughts will follow" [Hexagram 31: Influence]. The Master said, "What need has nature of thought and care? In nature all things return to their common source and are distributed along different paths; through one action, the fruits of a hundred thoughts are realized. What need has nature of thought, of care?" Confucianism. I Ching, Great Commentary 2.5.1 Therefore I tell you, do not be anxious about your life, what you shall eat or what you shall drink, nor about your body, what you shall put on. Is not life more than food and clothing? Look at the birds of the air: they neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not of more value than they? And which of you by being anxious can add one cubit to his span of life? And why are you anxious about clothing? Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they neither toil nor spin; yet I tell you, even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. But if God so clothes the grass of the field, which today is alive and tomorrow is thrown into the oven, will he not much more clothe you, O men of little faith? Therefore do not be anxious, saying "What shall we eat?" or "What shall we wear?" For the gentiles seek all these things; and your heavenly Father knows that you need them all. But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well. Christianity. Matthew 6.25-33 Whoever has bread in his basket and says, "What am I going to eat tomorrow?" only belongs to those who are little in faith. Judaism. Talmud, Sota 48b "My clothes are torn, I shall soon go naked," or "I shall get a new suit": such thoughts should not be entertained by a monk. At one time he will have no clothes, at another time he will have some. Knowing this to be a salutary rule, a wise monk should not complain about it. Jainism. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 2.12-13 Though the fig tree do not blossom, nor fruit be on the vines, the produce of the olive fail and the fields yield no food, the flock be cut off from the fold and there be no herd in the stalls, yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will exult in the God of my salvation. Judaism and Christianity. Habakkuk 3.17-18 Matthew 6.25-33: Cf. Srimad Bhagavatam 9, p. 992. Habakkuk 3.17-18: Cf. Sri Raga, M.1, p. 876. The Exalted One said to Bhaddiya, "Bhaddiya, what motive have you, who are wont to resort to forest-dwelling, to the roots of trees, to lonely spots, in exclaiming, 'Ah! 'tis bliss! Ah! 'tis bliss!'?" "Formerly, sir, when I enjoyed the bliss of royalty as a householder, within my palace guards were set and outside my palace guards were set. So also in the district and outside. Thus, sir, though guarded and protected, I dwelt fearful, anxious, trembling, and afraid. But now, sir, as I resort to forest-dwelling, to the roots of trees, to lonely spots, though alone, I am fearless, assured, confident, and unafraid. I live at ease, unstartled, lightsome, with heart like that of some wild creature. This, sir, was the motive I have for exclaiming, 'Ah! 'tis bliss! Ah! 'tis bliss!'" Buddhism. Udana 19-20 The restless mind is not fixed at one spot; Like a deer it nibbles at tender shoots. Should man lodge in mind the divine lotus feet, His life span is lengthened, his mind awakened, immortal he becomes. All beings are in the grip of anxiety; But by contemplation of God comes joy. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Ramkali Dakhni Onkar, M.1, p. 932 The awakened sages call a person wise when all his undertakings are free from anxiety about results; all his selfish desires have been consumed in the fire of knowledge. The wise, ever satisfied, have abandoned all external supports. Their security is unaffected by the results of their action; even while acting, they really do nothing at all [i.e., nothing producing karma]. Free from expectations and from all sense of possession, with mind and body firmly controlled by the Self, they do not incur sin by the performance of physical action. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 4.19-21 The man who has had his feet cut off in punishment discards his fancy clothes--because praise and blame no longer touch him. The chained convict climbs the highest peak without fear--because he has abandoned all thought of life and death. These two are submissive and unashamed because they have forgotten other men, and by forgetting other men they have become men of Heaven. You may treat such men with respect and they will not be pleased; you may treat them with contumely and they will not be angry. Only because they are one with the Heavenly Harmony can they be like this. Taoism. Chuang Tzu 23 Ramkali Dakhni Onkar, M.1: Cf. Sri Raga, M.1, p. 876; Atharva Veda 10.8.43-44, p. 582. Bhagavad Gita 4.19-21: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 2.47-50. p. 941; Tao Te Ching 2, p. 941; Sutta Nipata 1072-76, p. 532. Chuang Tzu 23: It is a well-known phenomenon that people who have faced death, imprisonment, or absolute disgrace can rise above ordinary notions of good and evil and become people of profound wisdom. Cf. Chuang Tzu 6, p. 234; 31, p. 961. Argument With GodWhere God is known and experienced as a real Person, one who loves and cares for human beings as his children, the seeker after God may not be satisfied with love expressed only as devotion, obedience, or blind trust. He may desire an encounter that is more dramatic and definite: a stand, a confrontation, an argument. The fact that almighty God will countenance such arguments is an indication of his profound love for humanity. This is not the argument of the doubter or the atheist, nor the complaint of one with little faith,1 but an encounter motivated by a burning desire for deeper insight into God's Truth and experience of his compassionate Presence.Job argued with God because conventional wisdom said that his suffering must be the just punishment for his sins. Yet he knew himself to be innocent of any crimes, and he wanted to meet God face to face rather than accept platitudes which he knew to be untrue. Although God did not quite grant his innocence as he had conceived it, Job was more than transformed by the encounter itself. In the Ramayana, Sita went through an ordeal by fire to prove her innocence to her husband, the divine Rama, who had spurned her without cause. She submitted to the fire to prove her faithfulness; thus she was proved herself and was reconciled to her Lord. The great bhakti saints such as Basavanna had such pure and ardent devotion that they could argue for the integrity of their relationship with God. The Hebrew prophets often interceded with God in attempting to change his mind and win pardon for their people; thus Abraham interceded for the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, challenging God to show his mercy rather than his wrath. In a similar manner Muhammad, on his heavenly tour during the Night Journey (Mi'raj), argued with God and won a reduction of the number of obligatory prayers incumbent on all Muslims. A well-known passage from the Talmud depicts the sages arguing with God to illustrate how much God values human free choice. 1. On not complaining, see Bhagavad Gita 3.31-32, p. 162; Sun Myung Moon, 9-11-72, p. 772; Job 2.9-10, pp. 707f.; Var Majh, M.1, p. 707; John 18.11, p. 707; Book of Songs, Ode 40, p. 707. Let me have silence, and I will speak, and let come on me what may. I will take my flesh in my teeth, and put my life in my hand. Behold, he will slay me; I have no hope; yet I will defend my ways to his face. This will be my salvation, that a godless man shall not come before him. Listen carefully to my words, and let my declaration be in your ears. Behold, I have prepared my case; I know that I shall be vindicated. Who is there that will contend with me? For then I would be silent and die. Only grant two things to me, then I will not hide myself from thy face: withdraw thy hand far from me, and let not dread of thee terrify me. Then call, and I will answer; or let me speak, and do thou reply to me. How many are my iniquities, and my sins? Make me know my transgression and my sin. Why dost thou hide thy face, and count me as thy enemy? Judaism and Christianity. Job 15.13-24 Oh that I knew where I might find him, that I might come even to his seat! I would lay my case before him and fill my mouth with arguments. I would learn what he would answer me, and understand what he would say to me. Would he contend with me in the greatness of his power? No; he would give heed to me. There an upright man could reason with him, and I should be acquitted for ever by my judge. Behold, I go forward, but he is not there; and backward, but I cannot perceive him; on the left hand I seek him, but I cannot behold him; I turn to the right hand, but I cannot see him. But he knows the way that I take; when he has tried me, I shall come forth as gold. Judaism and Christianity. Job 23.3-10 After the death of Ravana, Rama sent for Sita.... When Sita eagerly arrived, after her months of loneliness and suffering, she was received by her husband in full view of a vast public. But she could not understand why her lord seemed preoccupied and moody and cold. Rama suddenly said, "My task is done. I have now freed you. I have fulfilled my mission. All this effort has been not to attain personal satisfaction for you or me. It was to vindicate the honor of the Ikshvahu race and to honor our ancestors' codes and values. After all this, I must tell you that it is not customary to admit back to the normal married fold a woman who has resided all alone in a stranger's house. There can be no question of our living together again. I leave you free to go where you please and to choose any place to live in. I do not restrict you in any manner." On hearing this, Sita broke down. "My trials are not ended yet," she cried. "I thought with your victory our troubles were at an end...! So be it." She beckoned to Lakshmana and ordered, "Light a fire at once, on this very spot." Lakshmana hesitated and looked at his brother, wondering whether he would countermand the order. But Rama seemed passive and acquiescent. Lakshmana gathered faggots and got ready a roaring pyre within a short time. The entire crowd watched, stunned, while the flames rose higher and higher. Still Rama made no comment. He watched. Sita approached the fire, prostrated herself before it, and said, "O Agni, great god of fire, be my witness." She jumped into the fire. From the heart of the flame rose the god of fire, bearing Sita, and presented her to Rama with words of blessing. Rama, now satisfied that he had established his wife's integrity in the presence of the world, welcomed Sita back to his arms. Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda 118-20 I do act as I talk And live up to my words in deed; Take a balance and weights in your hands Oh my Lord! If my words and deeds Should differ slightly By even a barley grain, You kick me and go, Oh Lord Kudala Sangama! Hinduism. Basavanna, Vachana 440 I am the cattle; you are the herdsman. Before I am caught and thrashed as the beast, O Lord Kudala Sangama! Please see to it that you are not blamed: "Who the heck is grazing this one here!" Hinduism. Basavanna, Vachana 53 Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda 118-20: Although Sita had remained chaste while in Ravana's captivity (see Ramayana, Sundara Kanda 19-22, pp. 764-65), Rama still was unwilling to take her back. Rama is God incarnate; why would he not know of her chastity and fidelity and accept her? The text says that he was swayed by the suspicions and scruples of the crowd, and that he momentarily doubted his true identity as Vishnu. Thus it is up to Sita herself to prove her innocence through an ordeal by fire. Vachana 440: The sage is so full of self-confidence that he can challenge the divine Judge. Kudala Sangama is Basavanna's personal name for Lord Shiva; it is the name of a temple where he studied in his youth. Vachana 53: Just as the herdsman should be vigilant enough not to let his cattle go astray and graze in another's field, so God should save his ardent devotee for the sake of his own good name. The Lord said, "Because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is great and their sin is very grave, I will go down to see whether they have done altogether according to the outcry which has come to me; and if not, I will know." So the men turned from there, and went toward Sodom; but Abraham still stood before the Lord. Then Abraham drew near, and said, "Will you indeed destroy the righteous with the wicked? Suppose there are fifty righteous within the city; will you still destroy the place and not spare it for the fifty righteous who are in it? Far be it from you to do such a thing, to slay the righteous with the wicked, so that the righteous fare as the wicked! Far be that from you! Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?" And the Lord said, "If I find at Sodom fifty righteous in the city, I will spare the whole place for their sake." Abraham answered, "Behold, I have taken upon myself to speak to the Lord, I who am but dust and ashes. Suppose five of the fifty righteous are lacking? Will you destroy the whole city for lack of five?" And he said, "I will not destroy it if I find forty-five there." "Suppose forty are found there." "For the sake of forty I will not do it." "Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak. Suppose thirty are found there." "I will not do it, if I find thirty there." "Behold, I have taken upon myself to speak to the Lord. Suppose twenty are found there." "For the sake of twenty I will not destroy it." "Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak again but this once. Suppose ten are found there." "For the sake of ten I will not destroy it." And the Lord went his way when he had finished speaking to Abraham; and Abraham returned to his place. Judaism and Christianity. Genesis 18.20-33 God said, "When I conquer, I lose. When I am conquered, I gain. I conquered the generation of the flood. But did I not lose, for I destroyed my world? So, too, with the generation of the Tower of Babel. So, too, with the men of Sodom. But at the sin of the golden calf I was conquered; Moses prevailed over me [to forgive their sin], and I gained, in that I did not destroy Israel." Judaism. Midrash, Pesikta Rabbati 32b-33a "When the angel raised me [through the heavens]," said the Prophet, "then God prescribed for my people fifty prayers [a day]. As I came back with this regulation, I passed near Moses. 'What has God prescribed for your people?' he asked. 'He has prescribed fifty prayers,' I replied. 'Go back to the Lord,' said Moses, 'for your people will not be strong enough to endure that.' So I went back into the presence of God, who reduced the number by half. Then when I came near Moses, I said to him, 'They have been reduced by half.' 'Go back to the Lord,' he said, 'for your people will not be strong enough to endure that.' I went back into the presence of God, who reduced the number again by half. Coming back to Moses, I told him of this new reduction. 'Go back to the Lord,' he replied, 'for your people will not have the strength to endure that.' I went back into the presence of God and He said to me, There will be five prayers then, but they will be worth fifty in my eyes, for nothing can be changed of what has been spoken in my presence. I went back to Moses, who said to me again, 'Go back to the Lord.' 'I am ashamed before the Lord,' I replied." Islam. Hadith of Bukhari Pesikta Rabbati 32b-33a: On Moses' intercession for Israel, see Deuteronomy 9.11-29, p. 641. On that day Rabbi Eliezer brought forward all of the arguments in the world [in favor of his position on a certain matter of ritual cleanliness], but they [his colleagues] did not accept them from him. He said to them, "If the law agrees with me, let this carob tree prove it." The carob tree leaped a hundred cubits from its place in the garden. The sages replied, "No proof can be brought from a carob tree." He said to them, "If the law agrees with me, let this stream of water prove it." The stream of water began to flow backwards. The sages replied, "No proof can be brought from a stream of water." Again he said to them, "If the law agrees with me, let the walls of this schoolhouse prove it." The walls began to shake and incline to fall. Rabbi Joshua leaped up and rebuked the walls saying, "When disciples of sages engage in legal dispute what is your relevance?" In honor of Rabbi Joshua the walls did not tumble. In honor of Rabbi Eliezer they did not right themselves, and are still inclined even to this day. Again Rabbi Eliezer said to the sages, "If the law agrees with me, let it be proved from Heaven." A divine voice came forth and said, "Why do you dispute with Rabbi Eliezer, for in all matters the law agrees with him!" But Rabbi Joshua rose to his feet again and exclaimed, "'It is not in heaven.'" Some time later, Rabbi Nathan met the prophet Elijah and asked him, "What did the Holy One, blessed be He, do when rebuked by Rabbi Joshua?" Elijah replied, "He laughed with joy, saying, 'My children have defeated me, my children have defeated me.'" Judaism. Talmud, Baba Metzia 59ab Hadith of Bukhari: This is a portion of the hadith of the Mi'raj, Muhammad's Night Journey. For more of this hadith, where Muhammad flies through the seven heavens, see pp. 360f. Baba Metzia 59ab: Rabbi Joshua's rebuke of the divine voice is a quotation of Deuteronomy 30.12. It implies that God has left the divine law in human hands and open to human interpretation regardless of God's position. The report of Elijah is based upon the tradition that, having been taken up to heaven in a whirlwind (2 Kings 2.11), he lives with God and enjoys his confidence; see Sanhedrin 98a, p. 1104. Atonement And ForgivenessFor people soiled by sin and hence unworthy to enter the presence of God, or corrupted by evil deeds and hence unable to realize their true inner nature, an essential prerequisite for salvation is the forgiveness of sins. The experience of divine forgiveness and pardon is universal, reaching to supplicants in all the world's religions.The opening passages express God's forgiving nature; it is ever God's desire to forgive. The next few passages treat the idea of atonement; some expiation must be made for sin, either by a Savior, or by a priest, or by the supplicant's own acts of penance and devotion. Several texts discuss the cleansing of sin. We conclude with passages which emphasize the magnitude of divine forgiveness, which can encompass even the most gargantuan evils. Some passages suggest that God even desired sin or favors sinners in order that He may demonstrate His gracious and forgiving nature. I, I am He who blots out your transgressions for my own sake, and I will not remember your sins. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 43.25 All evil effects of deeds are destroyed, when He who is both personal and impersonal is realized. Hinduism. Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.9 Say, "If you love God, follow me, and God will love you, and forgive you all your sins; God is All-forgiving, All-compassionate." Islam. Qur'an 3.31 In him we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of our trespasses, according to the riches of his grace which he lavished upon us. Christianity. Bible, Ephesians 1.7-8 Isaiah 43.25: Cf. Isaiah 1.16-20, p. 729. Ephesians 1.7-8: This passage speaks of the blood of Christ, shed on the cross for the forgiveness of sins. Cf. Romans 3.23-25, p. 506, Hebrews 9.11-14, below; John 1.29, p. 636; 1 Corinthians 11.23-25, p. 851. Say, "O my Servants who have transgressed against their souls! Despair not of the mercy of God: for God forgives all sins: for He is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful." Islam. Qur'an 39.53 Let every person ask pardon of the Great Light Asis, The Molder of us all. African Traditional Religions. Kipsigis Tradition (Kenya) If we have sinned against the man who loves us, have wronged a brother, a dear friend, or a comrade, the neighbor of long standing or a stranger, remove from us this stain, O King Varuna. Hinduism. Rig Veda 5.85.7 Though a man be soiled with the sins of a lifetime, let him but love me, rightly resolved, in utter devotion. I see no sinner, that man is holy. Holiness soon shall refashion his nature to peace eternal. O son of Kunti, of this be certain: the man who loves me shall not perish. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 9.30-31 Anyone that is fallen into the grip of lust, wrath, or attachment, Attached to stingy greed, Guilty of the four cardinal sins and evils, And demonic sins like murder; Who never has attended to scriptures, holy music, or sacred verse-- By contemplation of the Supreme Being, With a moment's remembrance of God shall he be saved. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Sri Raga, M.5, p. 70 Hide thy face from my sins, and blot out all my iniquities. Create in me a clean heart, O God, and put a new and right spirit within me. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Psalms 51.9-10 Shining brightly, Agni, drive away our sin, and shine wealth on us. Shining bright, drive away our sin. For good fields, for good homes, for wealth, we made our offerings to Thee. Shining bright, drive away our sin.... So that Agni's conquering beams may spread out on every side, Shining bright, drive away our sin. Thy face is turned on every side, Thou pervadest everywhere. Shining bright, drive away our sin. Hinduism. Rig Veda 1.97.1-6 Of the sin against the gods Thou art atonement; Of the sin against men Thou art atonement; Of the sin against myself Thou art atonement; Of every kind of sin Thou art atonement. The sin that I have committed knowingly, and that I have committed unawares, Of all sins Thou art atonement. Hinduism. Yajur Veda 8.13 Let him utter the name, Buddha Amitayus. Let him do so serenely with his voice uninterrupted; let him be continually thinking of Buddha until he has completed ten times the thought, repeating, "Adoration to Buddha Amitayus." On the strength of [his merit of] uttering the Buddha's name he will, during every repetition, expiate the sins which involve him in births and deaths during eighty million kalpas. Buddhism. Meditation on Buddha Amitayus 3.30 Aaron shall offer the bull as a sin offering for himself, and shall make atonement for himself and for his house. Then he shall take the two goats, and set them before the Lord at the door of the tent of meeting; and Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats, one lot for the Lord and the other lot for Azazel. And Aaron shall present the goat on which the lot fell for the Lord, and offer it as a sin offering; but the goat on which the lot fell for Azazel shall be presented alive before the Lord to make atonement over it.... He shall kill the goat of the sin offering which is for the people, and bring its blood within the veil, and sprinkle it upon the mercy seat and before the mercy seat; thus he shall make atonement for the holy place, because of the uncleannesses of the people of Israel.... And Aaron shall lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat, and confess over him all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins; and he shall put them upon the head of the goat, and send him away into the wilderness by the hand of a man who is in readiness. The goat shall bear all their iniquities upon him to a solitary land.... And it shall be a statute to you for ever that in the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month... on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you; from all your sins you shall be clean before the Lord. Judaism. Bible, Leviticus 16.6-30 Qur'an 39.53: Cf. Qur'an 26.77-82, p. 137; 40.55, p. 743. Kipsigis Tradition: Cf. p. 906. Rig Veda 5.85.7: Cf. Rig Veda 7.86.2-5, p. 904 and note. Bhagavad Gita 9.30-31: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 18.66, p. 770; Srimad Bhagavatam 6.1, p. 909. Sri Raga, M.5: On the four cardinal sins, cf. Chandogya Upanishad 5.10.9, p. 463. Cf. Slok Vadhik, M.3, p. 904. Rig Veda 1.97: This is a litany for the fire ritual. Agni, deity embodied in fire, symbolically burns away sin and mental pollution through the ritual fire. Rig Veda 1.97.1-6: Cf. Rig Veda 10.9.8-9, p. 854. Meditation on Buddha Amitayus: In Pure Land Buddhism, compassion reaches to the nethermost hells! The grace of Buddha Amitayus, the Buddha of Infinite Life, or Buddha Amitabha (Jap. Amida), the Buddha of Infinite Light (who are one in the same), is sufficient to save even the most reprobate sinner. In the Amida Buddha's original vow, he pledged to save all sentient beings who would repeat his name ten times; see Larger Sukhavativyuha Sutra 8.18, p. 639. Leviticus 16.6-30: This is the ancient ritual for the Day of Atonement. The Bible prescribes that the high priest (Aaron) purify the altar and holy place with blood from the bull and goat which are sacrificed, and that the sins of the congregation be placed upon the head of a remaining goat (the 'scapegoat') who is led into the wilderness. In modern Judaism the Day of Atonement is observed with solemn fasting and the "sacrifice of prayer" which replace this archaic ritual. Cf. Menahot 110a, pp. 864f. Hebrews 9.11-14: This passage compares the sacrifice of Christ, who shed his blood on the cross for the forgiveness of sins, with the above ritual of the Day of Atonement. It emphasizes that Christ's sacrifice was 'once and for all,' 'securing an eternal redemption,' while the atoning rites of the Old Testament were only temporary and had to be repeated every year. Since Hebrews was written after the Temple had been destroyed (in 70 But when Christ appeared as the high priest of the good things that have come, then through the greater and more perfect tent (not made with hands, that is, not of this creation) he entered once and for all into the Holy Place, taking not the blood of goats and calves but his own blood, thus securing an eternal redemption. For if the sprinkling of defiled persons with the blood of goats and bulls and with the ashes of a heifer sanctifies for the purification of the flesh, how much more shall the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish to God, purify your conscience from dead works to serve the living God. Christianity. Bible, Hebrews 9.11-14 [The Bodhisattva] Vajrasattva is white, with one face and two hands, holding a scepter in his right hand and a bell in his left. He is sitting in the adamantine posture embracing his consort, Dor-je Nyem-ma, who is white, with one face and two hands, holding a curved knife in her right hand and a skull-cap in her left.... Above a moon in Vajrasattva's heart is a HUM and on the edge of the moon revolves the hundred-syllable mantra. [I pray], "O Endowed Transcendent Destroyer Vajrasattva, I myself and others request that you cleanse wrongs and hindrances from all sentient beings and purify every weakened and broken sacred word of honor." Having requested like this, from the HUM and the mantra-rosary in his heart shine out radiant lights, cleansing the wrongs and hindrances from all sentient beings, who come presenting offerings that delight the Awakened Beings and their spiritual sons. Every excellence of their body, speech and mind collects in the form of light and dissolves into the mantra-rosary and the HUM. From there a white stream of nectar flows, pouring from the place of union of the Lord and consort. It enters through the pour aperture at the crown of my head, filling my whole body with a stream of nectar of pristine awareness. I become purified by the cleansing of all evils and hindrances from my three doors. "Through my ignorance and delusions I have transgressed and weakened my pledges. O my spiritual master, protect me and be my refuge. Lord who holds the adamantine scepter, the embodiment of great compassion, the chief of beings, I go to you for refuge." In answer Vajrasattva replies, "O child of my family, your wrongs and hindrances and every broken and weakened commitment are cleansed and purified." Having spoken thus, he dissolves into me and my three doors become inseparable from the perfect body, speech, and mind of Vajrasattva. Buddhism. Cakrasamvara Tantra Thus hearing the litany, and that there be no blot of sin in the court or the country, May the deities bestow their purification that no offense remain, and As the wind blows from its origin to carry away the clouds of heaven, Even as the wind of morning and the wind of evening clears away the morning and evening mists, As the ship in harbor casts off its moorings stem and stern to be borne out onto the great plain of the sea, and As the rank grasses beyond the river are swept away with the clean stroke of the scythe-- Even so, may the deity Seoritsuhime-no-kami, dwelling in the swift-flowing stream that falls from the high mountains and low hills, Carry away these sins and pollutions without remain, to the wide sea plain. Our sins thus swept away, may the goddess Hayaakitsuhimi-no-kami, who lives in the stream of the sea plain, Open wide her great mouth to engulf those sins and impurities, and When they are thus imbibed, May the god Ibukidonushi-no-kami, dwelling in the place where breath is breathed, blow them out with a great rushing breath. And when he has thus banished them to the underworld, may the goddess Hayasasurahime-no-kami disperse them once and all. Even in this way, may the sins of all in the realm, from officials of the court on down, every transgression within the land, be washed away. Shinto. Engishiki 8 Engishiki 8: This is a traditional litany for purification, recited at Shinto shrines. Cf. Kojiki 11, pp. 729f. God the Almighty has said, "O son of Adam, so long as you call upon Me and ask of Me, I shall forgive you for what you have done, and I shall not mind. O son of Adam, were your sins to reach the clouds of the sky and were you to ask forgiveness of Me, I would forgive you. O son of Adam, were you to come to Me with sins nearly as great as the earth and were you to face Me, ascribing no partner to Me, I would bring you forgiveness nearly as great as it." Islam. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 42 Flowers like the lotus... do not grow on the dry ground in the wilderness, but do grow in the swamps and mud banks. Just so, the Buddha-qualities do not grow in living beings certainly destined for the uncreated but do grow in those living beings who are like swamps and mud banks of passion. Buddhism. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 8 If you were not to commit sins, God would have swept you out of existence and would have replaced you with another people who have committed sin, and then asked God's forgiveness, that He might grant them pardon. Islam. Hadith of Muslim Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 42: Cf. Pesikta Rabbati 32b-33a, p. 785; Canticles Rabbah 2.5, p. 764. Hadith of Muslim: Cf. Book of Mormon, 2 Nephi 2.19-26, p. 428 and note. Beyond RitualRitual is a powerful way to evoke the mystery, awe and holiness of the divine presence. However, ritual has sometimes been misused to cover hypocrisy. Overly relied upon, it may imbue an aura of sanctity which is not matched by wisdom or deeds. Ritual is no substitute for inward piety, love of one's neighbor, and personal realization of God. And whenever ritual is practiced, it should be done mindfully and with a proper attitude; indeed one purpose of ritual is to cultivate a heart that is sincere and devoted. Nearly every religion has its own internal critique of ritualism. Even when, as in some of these passages (the scripture of) one religion is apparently criticizing the ritualism of another religion, the critique is essentially a teaching for its own people.In Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, the ultimate goal--unity with Brahman or the peace of Nirvana--cannot be gained through ritual or meritorious work. Offerings and ritual are fruitful only for gaining the temporary bliss of heaven; but life in heaven is temporary. Soon enough, the soul returns to a body and to suffering in the world. Rather, the Upanishads and sutras teach that the path to the ultimate goal requires the inner discipline and realization that comes through meditation. Then there is the question of what to do when a request for charity conflicts with ritual taboos. The question was put to Jesus, "Is it lawful to heal on the Sabbath?" Mencius was asked whether a man can stretch out his hand to save a drowning woman even though ritually men and women should not touch each other. A Shinto passage praises hospitality to strangers even when it means breaking ritual abstinence. Finally, there is a general tendency in all religions to see in acts of devotion, study, and charity the essence of the formal rituals required by scripture. The Talmud which describes how Judaism spiritualized ritual once ritual practice had become impossible, when the Temple in Jerusalem, the only proper place for offering sacrifices and burnt offerings, was in ruins. Thus an act of charity to one's neighbor is regarded as the equivalent of sacrificing a lamb as a sin offering. In a similar vein, the Buddha criticizes animal sacrifice as creating evil karma by killing life, and instead teaches a spiritual meaning of sacrifice as fulfilled in honoring parents, caring for family, and charity to the monks. The Master said, "A man who is not humane, what can he have to do with ritual?" Confucianism. Analects 3.3 Not by sacred water is one pure, although many folk bathe in it. In whom is truth and dhamma, he is pure; he is a brahmin. Buddhism. Udana 6 Look, you brothers, who bathe in the holy waters, Look, you monks, who bathe in the stream. Give up, give up, your unholy thoughts; Give up lustful thoughts for another man's wife, Give up coveting after another man's wealth. If you bathe in the waters without giving up these, It is as if bathing in a stream that has run dry. Hinduism. Basavanna, Vachana 642 What is Shinto? Not In the shrines the worldly minded Frequent for gifts In vain, but in good deeds, pure Of heart, lies real religion. Shinto. Poem Udana 6: Cf. Var Suhiki, M.1, p. 490; Laws of Manu 5.109, p. 728. The original sanction for bathing in the Ganges is given by such texts as Rig Veda 10.9.8-9, p. 854. Vachana 642: Cf. Vachana 126, p. 721. Shinto Poem: See Oracle of the Kami Hachiman, p. 728. Hear and understand, not what goes into the mouth defiles a man, but what comes out of the mouth, this defiles a man.... Do you not see that what- ever goes into the mouth passes into the stomach, and so passes on? But what comes out of the mouth proceeds from the heart, and this defiles a man. For out of the heart come evil thoughts, murder, adultery, fornication, theft, false witness, slander. These are what defile a man. Christianity. Matthew 15.11-20 Abstaining from fish or flesh, nakedness, shaving of the head, wearing the hair matted, smearing with ashes, wearing rough deerskins, attending the sacrificial fire, all the various penances performed for immortality, neither incantations, oblations, sacrifices, nor observing seasonal feasts will cleanse a man who has not overcome his doubt. Buddhism. Sutta Nipata 249 Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord. Let a man examine himself, and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For any one who drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment upon himself. Christianity. 1 Corinthians 11.27-29 Even three times a day to offer Three hundred cooking pots of food Does not match a portion of the merit Acquired in one instant of love. Buddhism. Nagarjuna, Precious Garland 283 With what shall I come before the Lord? and bow myself before God on high? Shall I come before him with burnt offerings, with calves a year old? Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, with ten thousands of rivers of oil? Shall I give my first-born for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul? He has showed you, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you But to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God? Judaism and Christianity. Micah 6.6-8 Matthew 15.11-20: This saying was uttered in a dispute over the Jewish dietary laws (see Deuteronomy 14.3-21, p. 855), yet it applies generally to any ritualism that ascribes righteousness to certain material forms. The key to purity is the intention of the heart. Cf. Tanhuma, Shemini 15b, p. 855; Var Majh, M.1, p. 483. Sutta Nipata 249: Cf. Digha Nikaya i.167, p. 950. The same verse is found in Dhammapada 141. 1 Corinthians 11.27-29: Cf. Kularnava Tantra 5, p. 468. Precious Garland 283: Cf. Itivuttaka 19, p. 969; 1 Corinthians 13, p. 237; Oracle of the Kami of Kasuga, p. 969. It is not piety that you turn your faces [in prayer] to the East and to the West. True piety is this: to believe in God, and the Last Day, the angels, the Book, and the Prophets, to give of one's substance, however cherished, to kinsmen, and orphans, the needy, the traveler, beggars, and to ransom the slave, to per- form the prayer, to pay the alms. And they who fulfil their covenant, when they have engaged in a covenant, and endure with fortitude misfortune, hardship, and peril, these are they who are true in their faith, these are the truly God-fearing. Islam. Qur'an 2.177 Make your mosque of compassion, your prayer mat of sincerity; Your Koran of honest and legitimate earning. Be modesty your circumcision, noble conduct your Ramadan fast-- Thus shall you be a true Muslim. Make good deeds your Kaaba; truth your preceptor; Good action your Kalima and namaz. Make your rosary of what pleases God: Thus will you be honored at the last reckoning. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Var Majh, M.1, p. 140 Finite and transient are the fruits of sacrificial rites. The deluded, who regard them as the highest good, remain subject to birth and death. Living in the abyss of ignorance, yet wise in their own conceit, the deluded go round and round [on the wheel of death and rebirth], like the blind led by the blind. Living in the abyss of ignorance, the deluded think themselves blessed. Attached to works, they know not God. Works lead them only to heaven, whence, to their sorrow, their rewards quickly exhausted, they are flung back to earth. Considering religion to be observance of rituals and performance of acts of charity, the deluded remain ignorant of the highest good. Having enjoyed in heaven the reward of their good works, they enter again into the world of mortals. But the wise, self-controlled, and tranquil souls, who are contented in spirit, and who practice austerity and meditation in solitude and silence, are freed from all impurity, and attain by the path of liberation the immortal, the truly existing, the changeless Self. Hinduism. Mundaka Upanishad 1.2.7-11 Micah 6.6-8: Cf. 1 Samuel 15.22, p. 771; Amos 5.23-24, p. 288; Shabbat 31a, p. 1020; Japuji 1, M.1, p. 772; 1 Corinthians 13, p. 237; Oracle of the Kami of Kasuga, p. 969. Qur'an 2.177: Cf. Digha Nikaya iii.185, pp. 242f.; Qur'an 107.4-7, p. 491. Var Majh, M.1: Cf. Gauri Sukhmani 12, M.5, p. 950; Var Suhiki, M.1, p. 490; Var Majh, M.1, p. 483. It should be remembered that Guru Nanak lived prior to the consolidation of Sikhism as a separate religion; he lived as a Hindu among Hindus, and a Muslim among Muslims. He was critical of superficial ritualism in both religions and taught devotion to the One God as the true path of both religions. People under delusion accumulate tainted merits but do not tread the Path. They are under the impression that to accumulate merits and to tread the Path are one and the same thing. Though their merits for alms-giving and offerings are infinite They do not realize that the ultimate source of sin lies in the three poisons within their own mind. They expect to expiate their sins by accumulating merit Without knowing that felicities obtained in future lives have nothing to do with the expiation of sins. Why not get rid of the sin within our own mind, For this is true repentance? Buddhism. Sutra of Hui Neng 6 [Jesus] went on from there, and entered their synagogue. And behold, there was a man with a withered hand. And they asked him, "Is it lawful to heal on the sabbath?" so that they might accuse him. He said to them, "What man of you, if he has one sheep and it falls into a pit on the sabbath, will not lay hold of it and lift it out? Of how much more value is a man than a sheep! So it is lawful to do good on the sabbath." Then he said to the man, "Stretch out your hand." And the man stretched it out, and it was restored, whole like the other. But the Pharisees went out and took counsel against him, how to destroy him. Christianity. Matthew 12.9-14 Ch'un-y K'un said, "Is it prescribed by the rites that, in giving and receiving, man and woman should not touch each other?" "It is," said Mencius. "When one's sister-in-law is drowning, does one stretch out a hand to help her?" "Not to help a sister-in-law who is drowning is to be a brute. It is prescribed by the rites that, in giving and receiving, man and woman do not touch each other, but in stretching out a helping hand to the drowning sister-in-law one uses one's discretion." Confucianism. Mencius IV.A.17 Mundaka Upanishad 1.2.7-11: See the following note; cf. Chandogya Upanishad 7.22, p. 201. Hui Neng 6: Buddhist teaching, like that of the Upanishads (above), regards offerings and ritual as effective only for gaining the temporary bliss of heaven. Offerings made from a desire to earn a place in heaven are tainted by selfishness; hence they still produce karma and cannot bring about liberation from bondage. Liberation comes only through the internal gnosis of dependent origination and the reality of Nothingness. Of old, one of the ancestral gods was roaming through the land of his descendant gods, and he came to Mount Fuji in the province of Suruga, just as it was becoming evening, so he went to the home of the gods of Mount Fuji and begged to be provided with a place to stay for the night. The god of Mount Fuji, however, replied, "Unfortunately, today is the day that the first fruits are being offered to the gods, and all of my family are under taboos of purification and abstinence. As a result, it would not be fitting for us to put up an unknown stranger. On this day of all days, please excuse me from being more courteous to you." With this, the other deity was filled with resentment, and said, "I am your ancestor! Even so, will you not put me up? For this I will make it snow both winter and summer on this very mountain in which you live, cover it with mist and cold the year long, so that no person may climb it to give you offerings!" And with these words, he ascended instead Mount Tsukuba in the province of Hitachi, and begged there for a place to stay the night. The god of Tsukuba replied, "Tonight we are keeping the abstinence of the first fruits, but we cannot refuse your request." And so he respectfully provided the visiting deity with food and a place to stay. Thereupon, the ancestor deity was filled with joy, and said, "How dear, my child, you are to me, and how majestic your shrine. Here, may you prosper forever with the heavens and earth, with the sun and moon, and may people gather here forever to present you with food offerings, so that your generations continue in ease without end." As a result, Mount Fuji became covered with snow year-round so that it could not be climbed. Mount Tsukuba, on the other hand, is a gathering place for many people, who enjoy themselves with singing and dancing to this day. Shinto. Hitachi Fudoki Hitachi Fudoki: The Fudoki are gazeteers first prepared at the order of Empress Genmei (c. 715 Once, when the Exalted One dwelt near Savatthi in Anathapindika's Park at Jeta Grove, a great sacrifice was being prepared for brahmin Uggatasarira: five hundred bulls, five hundred steers, and as many heifers, goats, and rams were brought to the post for sacrifice. Now brahmin Uggatasarira went and visited the Exalted One, greeted him, ex- changed the usual polite talk and sat down at one side. He said, "I have heard that the laying of the fire and the setting up of the pillar are very fruitful, very advantageous.... I am indeed anxious, Master Gotama, to lay the fire, to set up the pillar; let Master Gotama counsel and instruct me for my happiness and welfare for many a day." "Brahmin, even before the sacrifice, a man who lays the fire, who sets up the pillar, sets up three swords, evil, ill in yield, ill in fruit. Even before the sacrifice, a man laying a fire, setting up a pillar, causes to rise such thoughts as, 'Let there be slain for the sacrifice so many bulls, steers, heifers, goats, rams!' Thinking to make merit, he makes demerit; thinking to do good, he does evil; thinking he seeks a way of happy going, he seeks a way of ill going. He sets up firstly this thought-sword, which is evil, ill in yield, ill in fruit. Again, brahmin, even before the sacrifice... he speaks such words as, 'Let there be slain so many bulls, steers, heifers, goats, rams!' Thinking to make merit, he makes demerit... he sets up secondly this word-sword.... Moreover, brahmin, even before the sacrifice, he himself first sets foot on the business, saying, 'Let them slay.'... he sets up thirdly this deed- sword.... "Brahmin, these three fires, when esteemed, revered, venerated, respected, must bring best happiness. What three? The fires of the venerable, the householder, the gift-worthy. And what is the fire of the venerable? Consider the man who honors his father and mother--this is called the fire of the venerable.... And what is the fire of the house- holder? Consider, brahmin, the man who honors his sons, womenfolk, slaves, messengers, workmen--this is called the fire of the householder... And what is the fire of the gift-worthy? Consider, brahmin, those recluses and godly men who abstain from pride and indolence, who bear things patiently and meekly, each taming self, each calming self, each cooling self--this is called the fire of the gift-worthy.... These three fires, when esteemed, revered, venerated, respected, must bring the best happiness." Buddhism. Anguttara Nikaya iv.41-45: The Great Sacrifice There are five great sacrifices, namely, the great ritual services: the sacrifice to all beings, sacrifice to men, sacrifice to the ancestors, sacrifice to the gods, sacrifice to Brahman. Day by day a man offers sustenance to creatures; that is the sacrifice to beings. Day by day a man gives hospitality to guests, including a glass of water; that is the sacrifice to men. Day by day a man makes funerary offerings, including a glass of water; that is the sacrifice to the ancestors. Day by day a man makes offerings to the gods, including wood for burning; that is the sacrifice to the Gods. And the sacrifice to Brahman? The sacrifice to Brahman consists of sacred study. Hinduism. Satapatha Brahmana 11.5.6.1-3 Anguttara Nikaya iv.41-45: Zoroastrianism and Jainism similarly opposed the ritual slaughter of animals as practiced by the vedic Aryans. See Yasna 49.1-9, pp. 319f. Satapatha Brahmana 11.5.6.1-3: This text shows a spiritualization of sacrifice in Hinduism. Since Brahman is higher than the gods, the sacrifice to Brahman, namely study and realization of truth, is more essential to religion than offerings of fire and animals to the gods. Similarly, feeding animals and acts of charity which are done daily in ordinary life are regarded as holy sacrifices. See the following passage. "And in every place offerings are burnt and presented unto My name" [Malachi 1.11]. "'In every place!' Is this possible?" Rabbi Samuel ben Nahmai said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan, "This refers to the scholars who devote themselves to the study of the Torah in whatever place they are: [God says], 'I account it to them as though they burned and presented offerings to My name.'..." "Bless the Lord, all you servants of the Lord, who stand in the house of the Lord in the night seasons" [Psalm 134.1]. "What is the meaning of 'in the night seasons'?" Rabbi Johanan said, "This refers to the scholars who devote themselves to the study of the Torah at nights: Holy Writ accounts it to them as though they were occupied with the Temple service...." Rabbi Isaac said, "What is the significance of the verses, 'This is the law of the sin offering' [Leviticus 6.18] and 'This is the law of the guilt offering' [Leviticus 7.1]? They teach that whosoever occupies him- self with the study of the laws of the sin offering is as though he were offering the sin offering, and whosoever occupies himself with the study of the laws of the guilt offering is as though he were offering a guilt offering." Judaism. Talmud, Menahot 110a Menahot 110a: Judaism regards the fruit of study of the Torah as a holiness equivalent to the fruit of sacrifice in the Temple, which had become impossible after its destruction in 70 a.d. Born AnewTo leave the condition of worldly existence and enter the realm of God's grace is often understood as a second, spiritual birth. Jesus said, "You must be born anew." The Christian who is born again in Christ becomes a child of God, experiences an intimacy with God, and has the spirit of Christ dwelling in him. The old self dies away, with its worldly desires and false views. To be born again, the Christian must undergo the rite of baptism by which he becomes open to receive Christ and the Holy Spirit. Among the passages from the Christian scriptures, we offer the account of the first Pentecost. The gifts of the Spirit, especially the gift of speaking in tongues, are essential signs confirming the veracity of a person's rebirth in Pentecostal Christian churches.In Hinduism and Buddhism, the twice-born are those who have received religious instruction and have realized its truths. Their life is now grounded in Dharma and they have rejected a life of sense gratification. The Hindu's second birth is the student's initiation into the mysteries of Vedic knowledge; it must be mediated by an able teacher. In Buddhism rebirth means to become a 'son of the Buddha' after education and training, through which the old ways of looking at life are replaced by the new eyes of the Dharma. Buddha's sons and daughters make vows to follow the path that will lead them to eventual Arahantship or Buddhahood. Initiations in the primal religions may similarly bring about a new birth.1 The mystic transformation of rebirth is integral to salvation as offered through several new religions, most notably the Change of Blood Lineage in the Unification Church. 1 See Sioux Vision Quest, pp. 847ff. Today I indeed know that I am really a son of Buddha, born from the mouth of Buddha, evolved from the Law, and have obtained a place in the Buddha-law. Buddhism. Lotus Sutra 3 To all who received him [Jesus], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God; who were born, not of blood nor of the will of the flesh nor the will of man, but of God. Christianity. Bible, John 1.12-13 Monks, I am a brahmin, one to ask a favor of, ever clean-handed, wearing my last body, incomparable physician and surgeon. You are my own true sons, born of my mouth, born into the doctrine, created in the doctrine, heirs to the doctrine, not carnal heirs. Buddhism. Itivuttaka 101 Jesus answered him, "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born anew, he cannot see the kingdom of God." Nicodemus said to him, "How can a man be born when he is old? Can he enter a second time into his mother's womb and be born?" Jesus answered, "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God. That which is born of the flesh is flesh, and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit. Do not marvel that I say to you, 'You must be born anew.'" Christianity. Bible, John 3.3-7 Repentance makes man a new creature; hitherto dead through sin, he is fashioned afresh. Judaism. Midrash, Psalms 18 He from whom the pupil gathers the knowledge of his religious duties is called the teacher. Him he should never offend. For he causes the pupil to be born a second time by imparting to him sacred learning. The second birth is the best; the father and the mother produce the body only. Hinduism. Apastamba Dharma Sutra 1.1 Lotus Sutra 3: The Mahayana goal was that each person himself become a Buddha. Cf. Parable of the Prodigal Son, Lotus Sutra 4, pp. 510ff. John 1.12-13: Cf. Book of Mormon, Mosiah 3.19, p. 912. Itivuttaka 101: In traditional Hinduism, the term 'twice-born' applied only to those who undertook instruction from a brahmin. Sakyamuni Buddha was not a brahmin in the conventional meaning; his caste was kshatriya. But as the Enlightened One, he declares himself to be a brahmin in the true sense of one who has attained Brahman. Thus he is qualified to initiate his followers into the Buddha doctrine and give them a second birth. The words 'born of my mouth' is an allusion to the Vedic myth of the creation of the castes--see Rig Veda 10.90.11-12, p. 275, in which the brahmins were born out of the mouth of the Supreme Being. Buddha is abolishing the caste system by declaring that all his followers are, as it were, brahmins, born out of the mouth of the Buddha by virtue of receiving his instruction. Compare Vacana 589, p. 280. John 3.3-7: To be 'born of water and the Spirit' refers to baptism with water, through which one receives the gift of the Holy Spirit: cf. Acts 2.38, p. 854; Romans 6.3-11, p. 754. In the eighth year after conception, one should perform the initiation (upanayana) of a brahmin, in the eleventh year after conception of a kshatriya, and in the twelfth that of a vaishya. Thus has been described the rule for the initiation of the twice-born, which indicates a new birth, and sanctified. Of him who gives natural birth and him who gives the knowledge of the Veda, the giver of the Veda is the more venerable father; for the birth for the sake of the Veda ensures eternal rewards both in this life and after death. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 2.36, 68, 146 But you are not in the flesh, you are in the Spirit, if in fact the Spirit of God dwells in you. Any one who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him. But if Christ is in you, although your bodies are dead because of sin, your spirits are alive because of righteousness. If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also through his Spirit which dwells in you. So then, brethren, we are debtors, not to the flesh, to live according to the flesh--for if you live according to the flesh you will die, but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body you will live. For all who are led by the Spirit of God are sons of God. For you did not receive the spirit of slavery to fall back into fear, but you have received the spirit of son- ship. When we cry, "Abba! Father!" it is the Spirit himself bearing witness with our spirit that we are children of God, and if children, then heirs, heirs of God and fellow heirs with Christ, provided we suffer with him in order that we may also be glorified with him. Christianity. Bible, Romans 8.9-17 These same people, though wrapped in all these veils of limitation, and despite the restraint of such observances, as soon as they drank the immortal draught of faith, from the cup of certitude, at the hand of the Manifestation of the All-glorious, were so transformed that they would renounce for his sake their kindred, their substance, their lives, their beliefs, yea, all else save God! So overpowering was their yearning for God, so uplifting their transports of ecstatic delight, that the world and all that is therein faded before their eyes into nothingness. Have not this people exemplified the mysteries of "rebirth"... ? ... Nothing short of this mystic transformation could cause such spirit and behavior, so utterly unlike their previous habits and manners, to be manifest in the world of being. For their agitation was turned into peace, their doubt into certitude, their timidity into courage. Such is the potency of the Divine Elixir, which, swift as the twinkling of an eye, transmutes the souls of men! Baha'i Faith. Book of Certitude, 155, 157 Apastamba Dharma Sutra 1.1: Cf. Atharva Veda 6.121.4, p. 531. Romans 8.9-17: Cf. Mark 8.34-36, p. 897; Galatians 2.20, p. 898. Do you have true love? True Parents have absolute and eternal love. But we inherited the wrong root of love through the fall. Here in the Western world, many deny that the fall occurred: "Who has fallen? What has anyone in my lineage done wrong?" But love, in the beginning of mankind, started in the wrong direction. Without recognizing this, then salvation and a religious life become meaningless. What is the final purpose of salvation? Mankind, represented by a tree, has multiplied fallen nature throughout the world. Restoration of love, life, and blood lineage must occur.... For the original "me" to emerge, I must originate in God's love, God's life, and God's lineage. It did not happen [at the time of Adam and Eve], therefore we are still trying to connect to these three things.... In restoring all of these three elements it is necessary to have the parent/child relationship. Fallen man exists only as a shell. Inside he is nothing; it's just like a scarecrow with a form but nothing else. He must receive love and become one with the parents. Before finding new life, there has to be love. In our case, we have life, but since there was no true love, our originating point was not God.... Most Christianity emphasizes Jesus' blood. Why is the blood so meaningful? Jesus' blood means the parents' blood before the fall: true blood. Can [True] Father alone, by himself, bequeath these three things? Not without [True] Mother! That is why the goal in the Old Testament was to have the Marriage of the Lamb. Where do fallen people belong? They are born and become mature physically, but in essence they have not been truly born. It is written in the Bible, "Unless you are born again, you cannot be saved," which means exactly that. They have to go back into the mother's womb and even before that--back into the father's bone marrow. That means his blood lineage is mine, his love is mine, his life is my life.... Basically all that we have to know is that True Parents embody the new love, life, and blood lineage. Unless you connect with all three, you cannot connect with God. Unification Church. Sun Myung Moon, 8-20-89 When the day of Pentecost had come, they were all together in one place. And suddenly a sound came from heaven like the rush of a mighty wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting. And there appeared to them tongues as of fire, distributed and resting on each one of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. Now there were dwelling in Jerusalem Jews, devout men from every nation under heaven. And at this sound the multitude came together, and they were bewildered, because each one heard them speaking in his own language. And they were amazed and wondered, saying, "Are not all these who are speaking Galileans? And how is it that we hear, each of us in his own native language? Parthians and Medes and Elamites and residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Lybia belonging to Cyrene, and visitors from Rome, both Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabians, we hear them telling in our own tongues the mighty works of God." But others mocking said, "They are filled with new wine." But Peter, standing with the eleven, lifted up his voice and addressed them, "Men of Judea and all who dwell in Jerusalem, let this be known to you, and give ear to my words. For these men are not drunk, as you suppose, since it is only the third hour of the day; but this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel, And in the last days it shall be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams; yea, and on my menservants and my maidservants in those days I will pour out my Spirit; and they shall prophesy. Christianity. Bible, Acts 2.1-18  Sun Myung Moon, 8-20-89: Rebirth means to leave the lineage of Adam and Eve--fallen humanity stained by the original sin (cf. Divine Principle I.2.2.2, p. 429)--and be engrafted onto the lineage of the True Parents, who embody God's true love--as God purposed for Adam and Eve had they not fallen (cf. Divine Principle I.1.2.3.4, p. 253). This Change of Blood Lineage occurs spiritually at the holy wedding; it is substantiated through a God-centered way of life which embodies the True Parents' standard of godly love. Book of Certitude, 155, 157: See Hidden Words of Baha'u'llah, Arabic 7, p. 897. Acts 2.1-18: This is the Bible's account of the first Christian Pentecost. In Judaism, the Pentecost is the day commemorating the giving of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai. The gift of tongues to the disciples, on the very day commemorating the giving of the Law ages before, marks the beginning of a new dispensation of God's grace, a 'dispensation of the Spirit'--see 2 Corinthians 3.7-16, p. 634. By quoting the prophet Joel, Peter declared that these phenomena of tongues and prophesy are signs of the Last Days and testimony to the Messiahship of Jesus Christ, who had been crucified. Jews and Christians alike, who even today look to a future new age, often describe it as an age of the Spirit, when the Spirit of God will become manifest in the hearts of all people; see Jeremiah 31.31-34, p. 1115 and Tanhuma, p. 1115. Note also that testimony to the Lord in every tongue is a characteristic of the Last Days according to the Jewish prayer Alenu, p. 1112, and in the Jesus' Great Commission to preach the gospel to all nations--see Matthew 28.18-20, p. 1027. Hence the Christian Pentecost is regarded both as the beginning of a new dispensation of the spirit and as the momentary sign of an even greater outpouring of the Spirit which is yet to come. The gift of tongues is a living reality for Pentecostal Christians, manifesting the power of the Spirit to transform their lives and make them new creatures in Christ. Cf. John 3.8, p. 531; Ephesians 5.18, p. 498. Call And AwakeningEarly in the fife of each founder comes the moment when he is awakened to his special vocation. In the Abrahamic traditions, the founder is called from the ordinary pursuits of life through a special appearance of divinity. This call is both a revelation of God and a challenge to take up a mission. Often, as was true for Moses and Muhammad, the founder first tried to resist the divine call before he finally accepted it.We do not know when Jesus first recognized his special vocation. The Bible depicts him as predestined from his birth, yet one particular moment of realization may have come at his baptism at the Jordan River with the descent of the Spirit. In India, where countless ascetics strenuously exert themselves on the path to enlightenment, the founders of Buddhism and Jainism began as two of the thousands of similar seekers for God. Instead of God coming down and calling them, as in the West, they strove toward truth and finally attained it. Nevertheless, in the biographies of the Buddha and Mahavira we have accounts of their first awakenings. When the young Buddha, living a sheltered life as a prince, saw suffering in others, he was distressed, and his sensitive mind was awakened to the quest for truth. Now the Lord said to Abram, "Go from your country and your kindred and your father's house to the land that I will show you. And I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves." Judaism and Christianity. Genesis 12.1-3 A man... was travelling from place to place when he saw a building in flames. "Is it possible that the building lacks a person to look after it?" he wondered. The owner of the building looked out and said, "I am the owner of the building." Similarly, when Abraham our father said, "Is it conceivable that the world is without a guide?" the Holy One, blessed be He, looked out and said to him, "I am the Guide, the Sovereign of the Universe." Judaism. Genesis Rabbah 39.1 Now Moses was keeping the flock of his father-in-law, Jethro, the priest of Midian; and he led his flock to the west side of the wilderness, and came to Horeb, the mountain of God. And the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush; and he looked, and lo, the bush was burning, yet it was not consumed. And Moses said, "I will turn aside and see this great sight, why the bush is not burnt." When the Lord saw that he turned aside to see, God called to him out of the bush, "Moses, Moses!" And he said, "Here am I." Then he said, "Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground." And he said, "I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob." And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God. Then the Lord said, "I have seen the affliction of my people who are in Egypt, and have heard their cry because of their taskmasters; I know their sufferings, and I have come down to deliver them out of the hand of the Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land to a good and broad land, a land flowing with milk and honey, to the place of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. And now, behold, the cry of the people of Israel has come to me, and I have seen the oppression with which the Egyptians oppress them. Come, I will send you to Pharaoh, that you may bring forth my people, the sons of Israel, out of Egypt." But Moses said to God, "Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh, and bring the sons of Israel out of Egypt?" He said, "But I will be with you; and this shall be the sign for you, that I have sent you: when you have brought forth the people out of Egypt, you shall serve God upon this mountain." Then Moses said to God, "If I come to the people of Israel and say to them, 'The God of your fathers has sent me to you,' and they ask me, 'What is his name,' what shall I say to them?" God said to Moses, "I Am Who I Am." He said, "Say this to the people of Israel, 'I Am has sent me to you.'"... But Moses said to the Lord, "Oh, my Lord, I am not eloquent, either heretofore or since you have spoken to your servant; but I am slow of speech and of tongue." Then the Lord said to him, "Who has made man's mouth? Who makes him dumb, or deaf, or seeing, or blind? Is it not I, the Lord? Now therefore go, and I will be with your mouth and teach you what you shall speak." But he said, "Oh, my Lord, send, I pray, some other person." Then the anger of the Lord was kindled against Moses and he said, "Is there not Aaron, your brother, the Levite? I know that he can speak well; and behold, he is coming out to meet you, and when he sees you he will be glad in his heart. And you shall speak to him and put the words in his mouth; and I will be with your mouth and with his mouth, and will teach you what you shall do. He shall speak for you to the people; and he shall be a mouth for you." Judaism and Christianity. Exodus 3.1-4.16 Genesis 12.1-3: This is the call of Abraham. In return for following God into an unknown land, he is promised a three-fold blessing: receiving a land, becoming a nation, and mediating God's blessing to the world. Cf. Hebrews 11.8-10, Abot 5.4, p. 612n.; Qur'an 21.71, p. 533. For the call of Jacob, his vision of the ladder reaching to heaven, see Genesis 28.10-17, p. 100. Genesis Rabbah 39.1: For more traditions on Abraham's call, see Zohar, Genesis 68a and Qur'an 6.75-79, p. 78. On the world in flames, see the Buddha's Fire Sermon, Samyutta Nikaya xxxv.28, p. 38, and the Parable of the Burning House in Lotus Sutra 3, p. 145n. I, an idle bard, by Thee a task am assigned: In primal time was I commanded night and day to laud Thee. The bard was summoned by the Master to the Eternal Mansion, And was honored with the robe of divine laudation and praise. On the holy Name ambrosial was he feasted. As by the Master's guidance on this he has feasted, has felt blessed. The bard has spread and proclaimed divine laudation by the holy Word. Says Nanak, By laudation of the holy Eternal Is the Supreme Being, all-perfection, attained. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Var Majh, M.1, p. 150 Lo! We revealed it on the Night of Power. Ah, what will convey unto you what the Night of Power is! The Night of Power is better than a thousand months. The angels and the Spirit descend therein, by the permission of their Lord, with all decrees. It means peace until the rising of the dawn. Islam. Qur'an 97.1-5 By the Star when it sets, your comrade errs not, nor is deceived, nor does he speak of his own desire. It is naught but an inspiration that is inspired, which one of mighty powers has taught him, one vigorous; and he grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew near and came down till he was two bows' length away or even nearer, and He revealed unto His slave that which He revealed. The heart lied not in what he saw; will you then dispute with him what he has seen? Islam. Qur'an 53.1-12 In the month of Ramadan in which God willed concerning him what He willed of His grace, the Apostle set forth to Hira as was his wont, and his family with him. When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel brought him the command of God. "He came to me," said the Apostle of God, "while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade whereupon was some writing, and said, 'Read!' I said, 'I cannot read.' He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, 'Read!' I said, 'I cannot read.' He pressed me with it again so that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, 'Read!' I said, 'I cannot read.' He pressed me with it the third time so that I thought it was death and said, 'Read!' I said, 'What then shall I read?'--and this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he should do the same to me again. He said, Read! In the name of thy Lord who created, Who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is the most beneficent, Who taught by the pen, Taught that which they knew not unto men. [Qur'an 96.1-5] "So I read it, and he departed from me. And I awoke from my sleep, and it was as though these words were written on my heart. Now none of God's creatures was more hateful to me than an ecstatic poet or a man possessed: I could not even look at them. I thought, Woe is me, a poet or possessed--never shall the Quraysh say this of me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest. So I went forth to do so, and then, when I was midway on the mountain, I heard a voice from heaven saying, 'O Muhammad! thou art the Apostle of God and I am Gabriel.' I raised my head toward heaven to see who was speaking, and lo, Gabriel in the form of a man with feet astride the horizon, saying, 'O Muhammad! thou art the Apostle of God and I am Gabriel.' I stood gazing at him, moving neither forward nor backward; then I began to turn my face away from him, but toward whatever region of the sky I looked, I saw him as before. And I continued standing there, neither advancing nor turning back, until Khadija sent her messengers in search of me and they gained the high ground above Mecca and returned to her while I was standing in the same place; then he parted from me and I from him, returning to my family. "And I came to Khadija and sat by her thigh and drew close to her. She said, 'O Abu'l-Qasim, where have you been? By God, I sent my messengers in search of you, and they reached the high ground above Mecca and returned to me.' I said to her, 'Woe is me, a poet or one possessed.' She said, 'I take refuge in God from that, O Abu'l-Qasim. God would not treat you thus, since He knows your truthfulness, your great trustworthiness, your fine character, and your kindness. This cannot be, my dear. Perhaps you did see something.' 'Yes, I did,' I said. Then I told her of what I had seen; and she said, 'Rejoice, O son of my uncle, and be of good heart. Verily, by Him in whose hand is Khadija's soul, I have hope that you will be the Prophet of this people.' Then she arose and gathered her garments and set forth to her cousin Waraqa, who had become a Christian and read the scriptures and learned from those that follow the Torah and the Gospel. And when she related to him what the Apostle of God told her he had seen and heard, Waraqa cried, 'Holy! Holy! Verily by Him in whose hand is Waraqa's soul, if you have spoken to me the truth, Khadija, there came to him the greatest Namus (Gabriel) who came to Moses aforetime, and lo, he is the Prophet of this people.'" Islam. Sirat Rasul Allah Exodus 3.1-4.16: Typically when God calls someone to a great mission, he may first offer excuses and try to refuse His request. Moses finally agrees to lead the Israelites when God gives him Aaron as a helper and spokesman. For more on the Name of God, see note to Exodus 3.13-15, p. 120, and Torah Yesharah, p. 506. Qur'an 53.1-12: This passage describes Muhammad's vision of the Angel Gabriel on Mount Hira. Sirat Rasul Allah: The quotation, from the Qur'an 96.1-5, is the content of the angel Gabriel's first revelation to Muhammad. Khadija was Muhammad's first wife and a firm support for her husband in the difficult days of his early ministry in Mecca. The angel Gabriel was sent from God to a city of Galilee named Nazareth, to a virgin betrothed of a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; and the virgin's name was Mary. And he came to her and said, "Hail, O favored one, the Lord is with you!" But she was greatly troubled at the saying, and considered in her mind what sort of greeting this might be. And the angel said to her, "Do not be afraid, Mary, for you have found favor with God. And behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you shall call his name Jesus. He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High; and the Lord God will give to him the throne of his father David, and he will reign over the house of Jacob for ever; and of his kingdom there will be no end." And Mary said to the angel, "How shall this be, since I have no husband?" And the angel said to her, "The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God... For with God, nothing will be impossible." And Mary said, "Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord; let it be to me according to your word." And the angel departed from her. In those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be enrolled. This was the first enrollment, when Quirinius was govern- or of Syria. And all went to be enrolled, each to his own city. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be enrolled with Mary, his betrothed, who was with child. And while they were there, the time came for her to be delivered. And she gave birth to her first-born son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths, and laid him in a manger, because there was no place for them in the inn. And in that region there were shepherds out in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night. And an angel of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were filled with fear. And the angel said to them, "Be not afraid; for behold, I bring you good news of a great joy which will come to all the people; for to you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is Christ the Lord. And this will be a sign for you: you will find a babe wrapped in swaddling cloths and lying in a manger." And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God and saying, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will among men! Christianity. Luke 1.26-2.14 In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan. And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens opened and the Spirit descending upon him like a dove; and a voice came from heaven, "Thou art my beloved Son; with thee I am well pleased." Christianity. Mark 1.9-11 Mark 1.9-11: The baptism of Jesus marks the beginning of his ministry. In Mark's account, Jesus is the recipient of revelation and empowerment; God speaks to him, the dove descends upon him, and the Spirit enters into him. In Matthew 3.17 and John 1.32-34 the baptism is regarded rather as a sign to John the Baptist of Jesus' messiahship and divinity. Although his parents were unwilling and tears poured down their cheeks, the recluse Gotama, having cut off hair and beard and donned saffron robes, went forth from home into homelessness. Buddhism. Digha Nikaya i.115 The king of the Shakya, having heard from the sage Asita that the goal of the prince was to attain supreme bliss, sought to engage the prince in sensual pleasures, lest he should wish to go off to the forest. On one occasion, however, the prince heard about woods filled with songs, abounding in fresh grass, with trees in which the cuckoos sounded, adorned with many lotus ponds. The king, learning of the desire of his dear son, arranged an excursion befitting his affection, majesty, and his son's age. Yet he ordered that all commoners suffering any affliction should be kept off the royal road lest the tender-hearted prince be distressed at the sight of them.... The prince saw the man overcome with old age, different in form from other people, and his curiosity was aroused. "Oh, charioteer! Who is this man with gray hair, supported by a staff in his hand, his eyes sunken under his eye- brows, his limbs feeble and bent? Is this transformation a natural state or an accident?" The charioteer, when he was thus asked, his intelligence being confused by the gods, saw no harm in telling the prince its significance, which should have been discreetly withheld from him, "Old age, it is called, the destroyer of beauty and vigor, the source of sorrow, the depriver of pleasures, the slayer of memories, the enemy of sense organs. That man has been ruined by old age. He, too, in his infancy had taken milk and, in due time, had crawled on the ground; he then became a handsome youth, and now he has reached old age.... People in the world are aware of old age, the destroyer of beauty; yet, they seek pleasures."... For a long while, the prince kept his gaze on the decrepit man, sighing and shaking his head. "Turn back the horses, charioteer; go home quickly. How can I enjoy myself in the garden when the fear of death is revolving in my mind?" [On a second excursion, the prince is similarly distressed at the sight of a man afflicted by disease. On a third excursion, he sees a corpse carried by mourners.] The charioteer then said to him, "This is the last state of all men. Death is certain for all, whether they be of low, middle, or high degree." Though he was a steadfast man, the prince felt faint as soon as he heard about death. Leaning his shoulders against the railing, he said in a sad tone, "This is the inescapable end for all men; yet, people in the world harbor no fear and seem unconcerned. Men must be hardened indeed to be so at ease as they walk down the road leading to the next life. Charioteer, turn back, for this is not the time for the pleasure-ground. How can a man of intelligence, aware of death, enjoy himself in this fateful hour?"... Longing for solitude, the prince kept his followers back and approached a lonely spot at the foot of a Jamb-u tree, covered all over with beautiful leaves. There he sat on the clean ground where the soft grass glittered like beryl. Contemplating the birth and death of beings, he undertook to steady his mind in meditation. In no time his mind became firm; he was released from mental distractions such as the desire for objects of sense, and attained the first trance of calmness. Having acquired the concentration of mind which springs from solitude, the prince was filled with extreme joy and bliss; then meditating on the course of the world, he thought that this state was indeed supreme. "Alas, wretched is he who, out of ignorance and the blindness of pride, ignores others who are distressed by old age, sickness, or death, though he himself, being likewise subject to disease, old age, and death, is helpless!" As he thus perceived clearly the evils of disease, old age, and death in the world, the false pride in self, arising from a belief in one's strength, youth, and life, left him instantly.... While this passionless, pure insight of that great-souled one grew, a man in mendicant's clothes approached him without being seen by others. The prince asked, "Tell me, who are you?" The man replied, "Oh best of men, I am a mendicant who, in fear of birth and death, has renounced the world for the sake of deliverance. In this world which is characterized by destruction, I eagerly search for the blessed and indestructible state. I regard both kinsmen and strangers as equals, and I am free from the evils of passion arising from objects of sense. Living wherever I happen to be--at the foot of a tree, in a deserted house, in the mountains, or in the woods--I wander about, living on the alms I receive, without ties to person or place and with no expectation save for the attainment of the ultimate goal."... The prince now knew what he should do, and began thinking of a way to leave his home. Buddhism. Ashvaghosha, Buddhacarita 3-5 While I was laboring under the extreme difficulties caused by the contests of these parties of religionists, I was one day reading the Epistle of James, first chapter and fifth verse, which reads: "If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him." Never did any passage of scripture come with more power to the heart of man than this did at this time to mine. It seemed to enter with great force into every feeling of my heart. I reflected on it again and again, knowing that if any person needed wisdom from God, I did; for how to act I did not know, and unless I could get more wisdom than I had then had, I would never know; for the teachers of religion of the different sects understood the same passages of scripture so differently as to destroy all confidence in settling the question by an appeal to the Bible. Finding myself alone, I kneeled down and began to offer up the desire of my heart to God. I had scarcely done so, when immediately I was seized upon by some power which entirely overcame me, and had such an astonishing influence over me as to bind my tongue so that I could not speak. Thick darkness gathered around me, and it seemed to me for a time as if I were doomed to sudden destruction. But, exerting all my powers to call upon God to deliver me out of the power of this enemy which had seized me, and at the very moment when I was ready to sink into despair and abandon myself to destruction... I saw a pillar of light exactly over my head, above the brightness of the sun, which descended gradually until it fell upon me. It no sooner appeared than I found myself delivered from the enemy which held me bound. When the light rested upon me I saw two Personages, whose brightness and glory defy all description, standing above me in the air. One of them spoke to me, calling me by name and said, "This is My Beloved Son. Hear Him!" My object in going to inquire of the Lord was to know which of all the sects was right, that I might know which to join. No sooner, therefore, did I get possession of myself, so as to be able to speak, than I asked the Person- ages who stood above me in the light, which of all the sects was right--and which I should join. I was answered that I must join none of them, for they were all wrong; and the Personage who addressed me said that all their creeds were an abomination in his sight; that those professors were all corrupt; that "they draw near me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me, they teach for doctrines the commandments of men, having the form of godliness, but they deny the power thereof." He again forbade me to join with any of them; and many other things did he say to me, which I cannot write at this time. When I came to myself again, I found myself lying on my back, looking up into heaven. When the light had departed, I had no strength; but soon recovering in some degree, I went home. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Pearl of Great Price, Joseph Smith 2.11-20 Pearl of Great Price, Joseph Smith 2.11-20: This was the first revelation to Joseph Smith, years before he received the golden plates on which were written the Book of Mormon. Here he was first oppressed by a satanic force--compare Genesis 32.24-30, pp. 624f.--but with desperate prayers he was delivered. He saw two beings, whom he identified as God and Jesus. Based in part on this revelation, Latter-day Saints theology understands God to have a physical body; cf. Pearl of Great Price, Abraham 3.22-4.1, pp. 368f. Charity And HospitalityGiving alms to the poor and hospitality to strangers are traditional virtues encouraged by all religions. A relationship to the Highest Good naturally builds a bond among all members of the community--for all people are as brothers and sisters with the absolute value of (potential) Enlightened Beings or God's children. Giving alms and charity is a concrete expression of this spiritual bond. Along with admonitions to practice charity, texts such as the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats from the New Testament, liken helping a poor man to giving offerings to God or the highest saints. Charity is not excused even for the poorest giver, according to several texts. Finally, we have passages on hospitality, including two texts lauding exemplary acts of charity, by a companion of the Prophet Muhammad and the Hindu householder Rantideva, who gave food and water to guests even though it meant that they would have to go without.Blessed is he who considers the poor; the Lord delivers him in the day of trouble. Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 41.1 They feed with food the needy wretch, the orphan, and the prisoner, for love of Him, saying, "We wish for no reward nor thanks from you." Islam. Qur'an 76.8-9 Charity--to be moved at the sight of the thirsty, the hungry, and the miserable and to offer relief to them out of pity--is the spring of virtue. Jainism. Kundakunda, Pancastikaya 137 Psalm 41.1: Cf. Var Sarang, M.1, p. 846. Qur'an 76.8-9: Cf. Qur'an 2.264, p. 428; 16.90, p. 827; 90.8-17, p. 584. "Ye shall walk after the Lord your God" [Deuteronomy 13.4]. But how can a man walk after God who is a devouring fire? [Deuteronomy 4.24]. It means, walk after His attributes: clothe the naked, visit the sick, comfort the mourner, bury the dead. Judaism. Talmud, Sota 14a Relieve people in distress as speedily as you must release a fish from a dry rill [lest he die]. Deliver people from danger as quickly as you must free a sparrow from a tight noose. Be compassionate to orphans and relieve widows. Respect the old and help the poor. Taoism. Tract of the Quiet Way Every person's every joint must perform a charity every day the sun comes up: to act justly between two people is a charity; to help a man with his mount, lifting him onto it or hoisting up his belongings onto it is a charity; a good word is a charity; every step you take in prayers is a charity; and removing a harmful thing from the road is a charity. Islam. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 26 Be kind to parents, and the near kinsman, and to orphans, and to the needy, and to the neighbor who is of kin, and to the neighbor who is a stranger, and to the companion at your side, and to the traveller, and to [slaves] that your right hands own. Surely God loves not the proud and boastful such as are niggardly, and bid other men to be niggardly, and themselves conceal the bounty that God has given them. Islam. Qur'an 4.36-37 If there is among you a poor man, one of your brethren, in any of your towns within your land which the Lord your God gives you, you shall not harden your heart or shut your hand against your poor brother, but you shall open your hand to him, and lend him sufficient for his need, whatever it may be.... You shall give to him freely, and your heart shall not be grudging when you give to him; because for this the Lord your God will bless you in all your work and in all that you undertake. For the poor will never cease out of the land; therefore I command you, You shall open wide your hand to your brother, to the needy and the poor, in the land. Judaism and Christianity. Deuteronomy 15.7-11 Sota 14a: Cf. Gittin 61a, p. 68. Tract of the Quiet Way: Cf. Great Learning 10.7-9, p. 806. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 26: Cf. Hadith of Ibn Majah, p. 847. Qur'an 4.36-37: Cf. Qur'an 2.177, pp. 741f.; 107.4-7, p. 427. On the Prophet's charity, see Hadith, p. 596. Deuteronomy 15.7-11: Cf. Matthew 6.1-4, p. 428. The gods have not ordained that humans die of hunger; even to the well-fed man death comes in many shapes. The wealth of the generous man never wastes away, but the niggard has none to console him. He who, possessed of food, hardens his heart against the weak man, hungry and suffering, who comes to him for help, though of old he helped him-- surely he finds none to console him. He is liberal who gives to anyone who asks for alms, to the homeless, distressed man who seeks food; success comes to him in the challenge of battle, and for future conflicts he makes an ally. He is no friend who does not give to a friend, to a comrade who comes imploring for food; let him leave such a man--his is not a home-- and rather seek a stranger who brings him comfort. Let the rich man satisfy one who seeks help; and let him look upon the long view: For wealth revolves like the wheels of a chariot, coming now to one, now to another. In vain does the mean man acquire food; it is--I speak the truth--verily his death; he who does not cherish a comrade or a friend, who eats all alone, is all sin. Hinduism. Rig Veda 10.117.1-6 There are three kinds of persons existing in the world: one is like a drought, one who rains locally, and one who pours down everywhere. How is a person like a drought? He gives nothing to all alike, not giving food and drink, clothing and vehicle, flowers, scents and unguents, bed, lodging and light, neither to recluses and br-ahmins nor to wretched and needy beggars. In this way, a person is like a drought. How is a person like a local rainfall? He is a giver to some, but to others he gives not.... In this way, a person is like a local rain- fall. How does a person rain down everywhere? He gives to all, be they recluses and brahmins or wretched, needy beggars; he is a giver of food and drink, clothing... lodging and lights. In this way a person rains down everywhere. Buddhism. Itivuttaka 65 When the Holy One loves a man, He sends him a present in the shape of a poor man, so that he should perform some good deed to him, through the merit of which he may draw a cord of grace. Judaism. Zohar, Genesis 104a Itivuttaka 65: This and the other Hindu and Buddhist passages in this section take a different point of view from the Hindu and Buddhist doctrine of the Field of Merit, in Dhammapada 356-59, p. 751; Petavatthu ii.69-71, pp. 752f.; Bhagavad Gita 17.20-22, p. 753, which regards only people of spiritual attainment as the proper recipients of gifts. Cf. Great Learning 10.9. Whoever removes a worldly grief from a believer, Allah will remove from him one of the griefs on the Day of Judgment. Whosoever alleviates the lot of a needy person, Allah will alleviate his lot in this world and the next. Whosoever shields a Muslim, Allah will shield him in this world and the next. Allah will aid a servant of His so long as the servant aids his brother. Islam. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 36 When the Son of man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, then he will sit on his glorious throne. Before him will be gathered all the nations, and he will separate them one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats, and he will place the sheep at his right hand, but the goats at his left. Then the King will say to those at his right hand, "Come, O blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed me, I was naked and you clothed me, I was sick and you visited me, I was in prison and you came to me." Then the righteous will answer him, "Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give you drink? And when did we see you a stranger and welcome you, or naked and clothe you? And when did we see you sick or in prison and visit you?" And the King will answer them, "Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my brethren, you did it to me." Then he will say to those at his left hand, "Depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels; for I was hungry and you gave me no food, I was thirsty and you gave me no drink, I was a stranger and you did not welcome me, naked and you did not clothe me, sick and in prison and you did not visit me." Then the they also will answer, "Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty or a stranger or naked or sick or in prison, and did not minister to you?" Then he will answer them, "Truly, I say to you, as you did it not to one of the least of these, you did it not to me." And they will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life. Christianity. Matthew 25.31-46 : Parable of the Sheep and the Goats On the day of judgment God Most High will say, "Son of Adam, I was sick and you did not visit Me." He will reply, "My Lord, how could I visit Thee when Thou art the Lord of the Universe!" He will say, "Did you not know that My servant so-and-so was ill and yet you did not visit him? Did you not know that if you had visited him you soon would have found Me with him?" Islam. Hadith of Muslim Matthew 25.31-46: Cf. Matthew 19.21-24, p. 805; Luke 10.25-37, p. 829. All beings should be accommodated and served by me as attentively as I would show filial respect to my parents, due respect to my teachers, to elders, and arhats, up to the Tathagatas, all in equality. I would be a good physician to the sick, a guide to those who have wandered from the path, setting their feet in the right way. I would be a light to those who wander in darkness. I would enable the people in poverty to discover vaults of treasure. A bodhisattva should thus benefit all beings in equal treatment, and bestow his loving care on all beings alike. And why? because if a bodhisattva serves all beings, that is equal to serving Buddhas dutifully. To hold all beings in high esteem, and render them respectful services, that is equal to reverencing and serving the Tathagatas. To make all beings happy, is to please the Tathagatas. Buddhism. Gandavyuha Sutra, Vows of Samantabhadra One should give even from a scanty store to him who asks. Buddhism. Dhammapada 224 Even a poor man who himself subsists on charity should give charity. Judaism. Talmud, Gittin 7b Not having enough of anything can cause one to become a miser. African Traditional Religions. Yoruba Proverb (Nigeria) He who has two coats, let him share with him who has none; and he who has food, let him do likewise. Christianity. Luke 3.11 See to it that whoever enters your house obtains something to eat, however little you may have. Such food will be a source of death to you if you withhold it. Native American Religions. A Winnebago Father's Precepts Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels unawares. Christianity. Hebrews 13.1 Let him who believes in Allah and the Last Day be generous to his neighbor, and let him who believes in Allah and the Last Day be generous to his guest. Islam. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 15 The husband and wife of the house should not turn away any who comes at eating time and asks for food. If food is not available, a place to rest, water for refreshing one's self, a reed mat to lay one's self on, and pleasing words entertaining the guest--these at least never fail in the houses of the good. Hinduism. Apastamba Dharma Sutra 8.2 Yoruba Proverb: Meaning that since it is bad to become a miser, you should give even though you yourself are in need. Hebrews 13.1: Cf. Hitachi Fudoki, pp. 744-45. Apastamba Dharma Sutra 8.2: Cf. Hitachi Fudoki, pp. 744-45. According to Abu Hurairah, a man came to find the Prophet and the latter asked his wives for something to give him to eat. "We have absolutely nothing," they replied, "except water." "Who wants to share his meal with this man?" asked the Prophet. A man of the Companions then said, "I." Then he led this man to his wife and said to her, "Treat generously the guest of the Messenger of God." She replied, "We have nothing except our children's supper." "Oh, well," he replied, "get your meal ready, light your lamp, and when your children want supper, put them to bed." So the woman prepared the meal, lit the lamp, put the children to bed, then, getting up as if to trim the lamp, she extinguished it. The Companion and his wife then made as if to eat, but in fact they spent the night with empty stomachs. The next day when the Companion went to find the Messenger of God, the latter said to him, "This night God smiled." It was then that God revealed these words, "and they prefer the others before themselves, although there be indigence among them" [Qur'an 59.9]. Islam. Hadith of Bukhari The fame of Rantideva is sung in this and the other world, Rantideva, who, though himself hungry, was in the habit of giving away his wealth as it came, while trusting in God to provide his needs. Even in time of famine, Rantideva continued his generosity though his family was reduced to poverty. For forty-eight days he and his family were starving; a little liquid, and that enough for only one, was all that remained. As he was about to drink it, an outcaste came begging for water. Rantideva was moved at the sight and said, "I do not desire from God the great state attended by divine powers or even deliverance from rebirth. Establishing myself in the hearts of all beings, I take on myself their suffering so that they may be rid of their misery." So saying, the compassionate king gave that little liquid to the outcaste, though he himself was dying of thirst. The gods of the three worlds came and desired to bestow upon him manifold blessings, but Rantideva, who had no attachment or desire, merely bowed to Lord Vasudeva [Krishna] in devotion. Hinduism. Srimad Bhagavatam 9 Consideration For The PeopleThe chief concern of any government should be the welfare of its citizens. Therefore the ruler, and hence the government, should be a servant to the people, putting their concerns and needs ahead of his own. He is called the Father and Mother of the People in the Chinese tradition and a Shepherd in the Judeo-Christian and Muslim traditions--titles which express the principle that the ruler should give the people his highest consideration. He should, whenever possible, lighten the people's burdens and abide by the will of the majority. He should give special consideration to the poor and destitute and provide them sufficient means of support. Such a government will be respected by the people, who then will easily submit to its rule.Governing a large state is like boiling a small fish. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 60 Lay no burden on the public which the majority cannot bear. Judaism. Talmud, Baba Batra 60b The ruler who submits to democratic ideals, His rule is lasting. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Maru, M.1 The highest duty of a ruler is to protect his subjects; the ruler who enjoys the rewards of his position is bound to that duty. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 7.144 Tao Te Ching 60: Cf. Mencius I.A.6, p. 242. Baba Batra 60b: Cf. Nupe proverb, p. 255. The duty of rulers: Gladden the people and do not scare them; make things easy and do not make them difficult. Islam. Hadith of Bukhari and Muslim When loss is above and gain below, the people's joy is boundless. When those above exhibit no pride to the ones below them, their virtue is brightly illumined. Confucianism. I Ching 42: Gain Emperor Nintoku climbed up a high mountain and, viewing the lands of the four quarters, said, "There is no smoke rising [from fireplaces] in the land. The entire land is impoverished. For a period of three years the people are released from all taxes and conscription." For this reason, the palace became dilapidated; although the rain leaked in everywhere, no repairs were made. The dripping rain was caught in vessels, and the inhabitants moved around to places where it did not leak. Later, when he viewed the land again, the entire land was filled with smoke. Therefore, realizing that the people were now rich, he rein- stated taxes and conscription. For this reason, the common people flourished and did not suffer from his conscription. Thus his reign is praised as being the reign of a saintly ruler. Shinto. Kojiki 110 God weeps... over a leader who domineers over the community. Judaism. Talmud, Hagiga 5b Guardianship is not to give an order but to give one's self. African Traditional Religions. Nyika Proverb (Kenya and Tanzania) Confucius said, "To demand much from oneself and little from others is the way for a ruler to banish discontent." Confucianism. Analects 15.14 Jesus called to them and said, "You know that the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great men exercise authority over them. It shall not be so among you; but whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be your slave; even as the Son of man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many." Christianity. Matthew 20.25-28 I Ching 42: Cf. Tao Te Ching 19, p. 260; 77, pp. 474-75; Analects 20.1.3, p. 555; Great Learning 10.7-9, p. 806. Kojiki 110: Cf. Man'yoshu I, p. 260; Great Learning 10.7-9, p. 806; Hadith of an-Nawawi 31, p. 821. Analects 15.14: Cf. Analects 20.1.3, p. 555; Great Learning 10.7-9, p. 806. Desiring to rule over the people, One must, in one's words, humble oneself before them; And, desiring to lead the people, One must, in one's person, follow behind them. Therefore the sage takes his place over the people yet is no burden; Takes his place ahead of the people yet causes no obstruction. That is why the empire supports him joyfully and never tires of doing so. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 66 A sovereign should become one with his people. The sovereign must think that all that he owns is not for himself, but for his country. If that happens, the country will prosper. Unification Church. Sun Myung Moon, 3-17-70 The Caliph is a shepherd over the people and shall be questioned about his subjects. Islam. Hadith of Bukhari and Muslim Ho, shepherds of Israel who have been feeding yourselves! Should not shepherds feed the sheep? You eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the wool, you slaughter the fatlings; but you do not feed the sheep. The weak you have not strengthened, the sick you have not healed, the crippled you have not bound up, the strayed you have not brought back, the lost you have not sought, and with force and harshness you have ruled them. So they were scattered, because there was no shepherd; and they became food for all the wild beasts.... Therefore, you shepherds, hear the word of the Lord: Thus says the Lord God, "Behold, I am against the shepherds; and I will require my sheep at their hand, and put a stop to their feeding the sheep; no longer shall the shepherds feed themselves. I will rescue my sheep from their mouths, that they may not be food for them." Judaism and Christianity. Ezekiel 34.2-10 Heaven and Earth are the father and mother of the ten thousand things. Men are the sensibility of the ten thousand things. It is telling the truth, thinking well, and seeing things clearly that make the principal ruler. The principal ruler is father and mother to the common people. Confucianism. Book of History 5.1.1: The Great Declaration Tao Te Ching 66: Cf. Tao Te Ching 2, p. 807; 3, p. 908; 7, p. 833; 12, p. 801; 28, p. 785; 77, pp. 474f.; 81, p. 833; Mencius I.A.2, p. 278. Hadith of Bukhari and Muslim: Cf. Hadith of Bukhari, p. 232; Hadith of Baihaqi, pp. 918f. Ezekiel 34.2-10: On the prophetic critique of excessive courtly extravagance while the poor suffer, see Jeremiah 7.1-15, p. 921; 22.13-16, p. 904; Isaiah 10.1-4, p. 920; Amos 1.3-2:16, pp. 924f.; 8.4-8, p. 421; 2 Samuel 11-12, p. 881. Book of History 5.1.1: This is the central expression of the duties of the ruler in China. Cf. Mencius I.A.4, p. 879; I.B.8, p. 887. If the chief has many breasts they are sucked by the people. African Traditional Religions. Akan Proverb (Ghana) To speak ill of those in authority because one is not given a share in such enjoyment [as they are privileged to have] is, of course, wrong. But for one in authority over the people not to share his enjoyment with the people is equally wrong. The people will delight in the joy of him who delights in their joy, and will worry over the troubles of him who worries over their troubles. He who delights and worries on account of the Empire is surely to become a true king. Confucianism. Mencius I.B.4 The government is the guardian of those who have no guardian. Islam. Hadith Old men without wives, old women without husbands, old people without children, young children without fathers--these four types of people are the most destitute and have no one to turn to for help. Whenever King Wen put benevolent measures into effect, he always gave them first consideration. The Book of Songs says, Happy are the rich; But have pity on the helpless. Confucianism. Mencius I.B.5 At the end of every seven years you shall grant a release. And this is the manner of the release: every creditor shall release what he has lent to his neighbor; he shall not exact it of his neighbor, his brother, because the Lord's release has been proclaimed.... For there will be no poor among you, for the Lord will bless you in the land which the Lord your God gives you for an inheritance to possess, if only you will obey the voice of the Lord your God, being careful to do all this commandment. Judaism and Christianity. Deuteronomy 15.1-5 Akan Proverb: In other words, the chief is like a parent who properly places himself and his wealth in the service of the people. Mencius I.B.5: In the Confucian Five Relations, the ethical norm of the ruler towards those below him is benevolence; thus Book of Ritual 7.2.19, p. 216. On the Confucian critique of excessive courtly extravagance while the poor suffer, see Mencius I.A.4, p. 879; I.B.8, p. 997; IV.A.3, p. 920; Book of Songs, Ode 254, pp. 922f. Deuteronomy 15.1-5: The biblical institution of the Sabbatical year granted a reprieve to the poor through a periodic forgiveness of debts. Cf. Leviticus 25.10, p. 255n. Give the king thy justice, O God, and thy righteousness to the royal son! May he judge thy people with righteousness, and thy poor with justice! Let the mountains bear prosperity for the people, and the hills, in righteousness! May he defend the cause of the poor of the people, give deliverance to the needy, and crush the oppressor! Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 72.1-4 Psalm 72.1-4: This is a royal psalm extolling the virtues of the ideal king. Cf. Jeremiah 22.3, p. 256. The king's country, Sire, is harassed and harried. There are dacoits abroad who pillage the villages and townships and who make the roads unsafe. Were the king, so long as that is so, to levy a fresh tax, verily his majesty would be acting wrongly. But perchance his majesty might think, "I'll soon put a stop to these scoundrels' game by punishments and banishment, fines and bonds and death!" But their license cannot be satisfactorily put a stop to by such a course. The remnant left unpunished would still go on harassing the realm. Now there is one method to adopt to put a thorough end to this disorder. Whosoever there be in the king's realm who devote themselves to keeping cattle and the farm, to them let his majesty give food and seed corn. Whosoever there be in the king's realm who devote themselves to trade, to them let his majesty give capital. Whosoever there be in the king's realm who devote themselves to government service, to them let his majesty give wages and food. Then those men, following each his own business, will no longer harass the realm; the king's revenue will go up; the country will be quiet and at peace; and the populace, pleased with one another and happy, dancing their children in their arms, will dwell with open doors. Buddhism. Digha Nikaya i.135, Kutadanta Sutta Woe to him who builds his house by unrighteousness, and his upper rooms by injustice; who makes his neighbor serve him for nothing, and does not give him his wages; who says, 'I will build myself a great house with spacious upper rooms,' and cuts out windows for it, paneling it with cedar, and painting it with vermillion. Do you think you are a king because you compete in cedar? Did not your father eat and drink and do justice and righteousness? Then it was well with him. He judged the poor and the needy; then it was well. Is not this to know me? says the Lord. Judaism and Christianity. Jeremiah 22.13-16 The court is corrupt, The fields are overgrown with weeds, The granaries are empty; Yet there are those dressed in fineries, With swords at their sides, Filled with food and drink, And possessed of too much wealth. This is known as taking the lead in robbery. Far indeed is this from the Way. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 53 When Po Ch arrived in Ch'i, he saw the body of a criminal who had been executed. Pushing and dragging until he had it laid out in proper position, he took off his formal robes and covered it with them, wailing to Heaven and crying out, "Alas, alas! The world is in dire misfortune, and you have been quicker than the rest of us to encounter it. 'Thou shalt not steal, thou shalt not murder,' they say. But when glory and disgrace have once been defined, you will see suffering; when goods and wealth have once been gathered together, you will see wrangling. To define something that brings suffering to men, to gather together what sets them to wrangling, inflicting misery and weariness upon them, never granting them a time of rest, and yet to hope somehow that they will not end up like this--how could it be possible? "The rulers of old attributed what success they had to the people and what failures they had to themselves; attributed what was upright to the people and what was askew to themselves. Therefore, if there was something wrong with the body of even a single being, they would retire and take the blame upon themselves. But that is not the way it is done today. They make things obscure and then blame people for not understanding; they enlarge the difficulties and then punish people for not being able to cope with them; they pile on responsibilities and then penalize people for not being able to fulfill them; they make the journey longer and then chastise people for not reaching the end of it. When the knowledge and strength of the people are exhausted, they will begin to piece them out with artifice, and when day by day the amount of artifice in the world increases, how can men keep from resorting to artifice? A lack of strength invites artifice, a lack of knowledge invites deceit, a lack of goods invites theft. These thefts and robberies--who in fact deserves the blame for them?" Taoism. Chuang Tzu 25 Jeremiah 22.13-16: Jeremiah addressed this prophetic rebuke to Jehoiakim, son of the good king Josiah. See note to Ezekiel 34.2-10, above. Tao Te Ching 53: Cf. Tao Te Ching 3, p. 908; 12, p. 801. Chuang Tzu 25: Cf. Proverbs 6.30-31, p. 421. Control AngerAnger is one expression of extreme, unrestrained emotion that must be brought under control if one is to make spiritual progress. Anger is a natural feeling that arises upon seeing unrighteousness, yet uncontrolled it can cause much damage. Of the great founders of religion, we see that Moses had anger as a weakness. He displayed it, to his own loss, at the incident of striking the rock at Meribah. For a related theme, see Turn the Other Cheek, pp. 1003-07.Conquer anger by love. Buddhism. Dhammapada 223 Anger dissolves affection.... Therefore man should subvert anger by forgiveness. Jainism. Samanasuttam 135-36 The fly cannot be driven away by getting angry at it. African Traditional Religions. Idoma Proverb (Nigeria) The anger of man does not work the righteousness of God. Christianity. James 1.20 Anger deprives a sage of his wisdom, a prophet of his vision. Judaism. Talmud, Pesahim 66b He who is slow to anger is better than the mighty, And he who rules his spirit than he who takes a city. Judaism and Christianity. Proverbs 16.32 Abu Huraira reported God's Messenger as saying, "The strong man is not the good wrestler; the strong man is only he who controls himself when he is angry." Islam. Hadith of Bukhari and Muslim Be angry but do not sin; do not let the sun go down on your anger, and give no opportunity for the devil. Christianity. Ephesians 4.26-27 When a man goes to sacrifice he must remain peaceful, without a hot heart. He must stay thus for at least a day. If he quarrels on that day or is hot in his heart he becomes sick and destroys the words of the lineage and of the sacrifice. African Traditional Religions. Luhya Saying (Kenya) If an evil man, on hearing of what is good, comes and creates a disturbance, you should hold your peace. You must not angrily upbraid him; then he who has come to curse you will merely harm himself. Buddhism. Sutra of Forty-two Sections 7 Brethren, if outsiders should speak against me, or against the Doctrine, or against the Order, you should not on that account either bear malice, or suffer resentment, or feel ill will. If you, on that account, should feel angry and hurt, that would stand in the way of your own self- conquest. Buddhism. Digha Nikaya i.3, Brahmajala Sutta You have heard that it was said to the men of old, "You shall not kill; and whoever kills shall be liable to judgment." But I say to you that everyone who is angry with his brother shall be liable to judgment; whoever insults his brother shall be liable to the council, and whoever says "You fool!" shall be liable to the hell of fire. Christianity. Matthew 5.21-22 Why, sir, do you get angry at someone Who is angry with you? What are you going to gain by it? How is he going to lose by it? Your physical anger brings dishonor on yourself; Your mental anger disturbs your thinking. How can the fire in your house burn the neighbor's house Without engulfing your own? Hinduism. Basavanna, Vachana 248 Now there was no water for the congregation; and the people con- tended with Moses, and said... "Why have you made us come out of Egypt, to bring us to this evil place? It is no place for grain, or figs, or vines, or pomegranates; and there is no water to drink." Then the Lord said to Moses, "Take the rod, and assemble the congregation, you and Aaron your brother, and tell the rock before their eyes to yield its water; so you shall bring water out of the rock for them; so you shall give drink to the congregation and their cattle." Then Moses and Aaron gathered the assembly together before the rock, and he said to them, "Hear now, you rebels; shall we bring forth water for you out of this rock?" And Moses lifted up his hand and struck the rock with his rod twice; and water came forth abundantly, and the congregation drank, and their cattle. And the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, "Because you did not believe in me, to sanctify me before the eyes of the people of Israel, therefore you shall not bring this assembly into the land which I have given them." Judaism and Christianity. Numbers 20.2-13 Dhammapada 223: Cf. Dhammapada 3-5, p. 999. James 1.19-20: Cf. Analects 16.7, p. 928. Idoma Proverb: Anger solves nothing. Ephesians 4.26-27: To practice this teaching, by resolving each day's quarrels and meditating to digest each day's resentments before going to bed each night, is a valuable spiritual exercise. For when anger is stored up day after day, it becomes much harder to eradicate. Sutra of Forty-two Sections 7: Cf. Romans 12.19-20, p. 1007. Digha Nikaya i.3: Cf. Chuang Tzu 2, p. 67; Lotus Sutra 20, p. 1006; Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life 5.48, p. 920; Itivuttaka 110, p. 740; Anguttara Nikaya v.66, pp. 724f. Matthew 5.21-22: Cf. Matthew 5.27-28, p. 931. Basavanna, Vachana 248: Cf. Jerusalem Talmud, Nedarin 9.4, p. 993. Numbers 20.2-13: As punishment for this mistake at the waters of Meribah, Moses would die in the wilderness and never set foot in the promised land (Deuteronomy 32.48-52). Instead of sanctifying God and showing forth God's blessings, Moses angrily rebuked the congregation; in his anger he struck the rock twice, when one strike, done with dignity, would have been appropriate (Exodus 17.6-7). Another example of Moses' anger was his act of killing the Egyptian (Exodus 2.11-14), for which he was forced to flee Egypt and live as an exile in Midian. Cosmic JusticeIn this section we treat the principle of cosmic justice and the law of cause and effect. The maxim that a person reaps what he has sown, the doctrine of karma, and belief in divine retribution are different expressions of a common principle that the world is governed by justice. This section does not distinguish the specific manner in which justice will be vindicated; e.g., through one's fate in this life, through reincarnation into a being of a different status, or through one's fate in the afterlife. For the latter, regarding beliefs about heaven and hell, see Chapter 6.The principle of justice bears the same ambiguous relationship to Ultimate Reality as does divine Law generally. In Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and African traditional religions it is God who executes judgment to maintain justice, while in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism the principle of justice is inherent in the fabric of the cosmos and is distinguished from and subordinate to the ultimate goal of Liberation. In Chinese religion there is both an impersonal Tao or Heaven which gives recompense according to principle and Taoist deities who execute judgment. More will be said in later chapters about the doctrine of karma, particularly the accumulated Karma and Inherited Sin, pp. 694-702, as they impinge on the present. Karma may function to explain a person's life circumstances by attributing them to conditions created in past lives; in that sense the doctrine of karma functions analogously to the doctrine of predestination in theistic religions. Yet the Buddhist scriptures caution against interpreting karma as a deterministic principle, and Hindu texts recognize that it can be blotted out through grace.1 [1See p. 695]. This collection of texts begins with passages on the principle of cause and effect, on justice as inherent to the nature of life. The next group of passages deals with the problem of the frequent delay between actions and the ripening of their fruits. The scriptures affirm that regardless of the delay, recompense is inescapable, sometimes describing it through the metaphor of Heaven's net. One solution to this problem is that recompense occurs in another life; here we offer several fundamental texts on karma, the impersonal law by which the deserts of one's deeds are reaped in the next incarnation. The next group of passages gives another solution, which is to envision that sure recompense comes only at the Last Judgment. The final group of passages depicts God, or his angels, as personally deciding and enforcing the judgment for one's deeds. Do not be deceived; God is not mocked, for whatever a man sows, that he will also reap. Christianity. Bible, Galatians 6.7 Suffering is the offspring of violence--realize this and be ever vigilant. Jainism. Acarangasutra 3.13 Whatever affliction may visit you is for what your own hands have earned. Islam. Qur'an 42.30 Our body in Kali Yuga is a field of action: As a man sows, so is his reward. Nothing by empty talk is determined: Anyone swallowing poison must die. Brother! behold the Creator's justice: As are a man's actions, so is his recompense. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Gauri Var, M.4, p. 308 Galatians 6.7: Cf. Ezekiel 18.1-30, pp. 681f. Qur'an 42.30: Cf. Qur'an 53.36-42, p. 681. Gauri Var, M.4: Cf. Maitri Upanishad 4.2, p. 696. All who take the sword will perish by the sword. Christianity. Bible, Matthew 26.52 Those who wrongfully kill men are only putting their weapons into the hands of others who will in turn kill them. Taoism. Treatise on Response and Retribution 5 Ashes fly back in the face of him who throws them. African Traditional Religions. Yoruba Proverb (Nigeria) For they sow the wind, and they shall reap the whirlwind. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Hosea 8.7 An ignorant man committing evil deeds does not realize the consequences. The imprudent man is consumed by his own deeds, like one burnt by fire. Buddhism. Dhammapada 136 Men who acquire wealth by evil deeds, by adhering to principles which are wrong, fall into the trap of their own passions and fettered with karma they sink further down. Jainism. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 4.2 A man who has committed one of the deadly sins will never again, until his death, lose the thought of that action; he cannot get rid of it or remove it, but it follows after him until the time of his death. Buddhism. Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines 17.3 I have acted, I have caused others to act, and I have approved of others' actions. One should first comprehend that all such actions taking place in the world are the cause of the influx of karma particles, and then should forswear them. Jainism. Acarangasutra 1.6-7 Unrighteousness, practiced in this world, does not at once produce its fruit; but, like a cow, advancing slowly, it cuts off the roots of him who committed it. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 4.172 Dhammapada 136: Cf. Dhammapada 131-132, p. 478. Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines 17.3: The 'deadly sins' in Buddhism are specifically: (1) to kill one's mother; (2) to kill one's father; (3) to kill an arhat; (4) to cause schism in the Order; and (5) to harm the body of a Buddha. Even if they attain to sovereignty, the wicked, engaged in cruel deeds, condemned by all men, do not enjoy it long, but fall like trees whose roots have been severed. O dweller in darkness, as in its proper season the tree puts forth its flowers, so in the course of time evil actions produce bitter fruit. Hinduism. Ramayana, Aranya Kanda 29 Good fortune and misfortune take effect through perseverance. The tao of heaven and earth becomes visible through perseverance. The tao of sun and moon becomes bright through perseverance. All movements under heaven become uniform through perseverance. Confucianism. I Ching, Great Commentary 2.1.5 As sweet as honey is an evil deed, so thinks the fool so long as it ripens not; but when it ripens, then he comes to grief. Verily, an evil deed committed does not immediately bear fruit, just as milk does not curdle at once; but like a smoldering fire covered with ashes, it remains with the fool until the moment it ignites and burns him. Buddhism. Dhammapada 69, 71 Let not their conduct grieve you, who run easily to disbelief, for lo! they injure God not at all. It is God's will to assign them no portion in the hereafter, and theirs will be an awful doom.... And let not those who disbelieve imagine that the rein We give them bodes good for their souls. We only give them rein that they may grow in sinfulness. And theirs will be a shameful doom. Islam. Qur'an 3.176, 178 Then I saw the wicked buried; they used to go in and out of the holy place, and were praised in the city where they had done such things. Because sentence against an evil deed is not executed speedily, the heart of the sons of men is fully set to do evil. Though a sinner does evil a hundred times and prolongs his life, yet I know that it will be well with those who fear God, because they fear before him. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Ecclesiastes 8.10-12 The net of Heaven is cast wide. Though the mesh is not fine, yet nothing ever slips through. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 73 Qur'an 3.176, 178: Cf. Qur'an 4.92, p. 477 and 14.42-51, p. 1100; also 2 Peter 3.10, p. 1099, where the reason for God's slowness is divine forbearance that the wicked might have a chance to repent. Ecclesiastes 8.10-12: Cf. Yoruba Song, p. 111. Further, as Heaven and Earth are the greatest of things, it is natural, from the point of view of universal principles, that they have spiritual power. Having spiritual power it is proper that they reward good and punish evil. Nevertheless their expanse is great and their net is wide-meshed. There is not necessarily an immediate response as soon as this net is set in operation. Taoism. Pao-p'u Tzu Everything is given on pledge, and a net is spread for all the living; the shop is open; and the dealer gives credit; and the ledger lies open; and the hand writes; and whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow; but the collectors regularly make their daily round, and exact payment from man whether he be content or not; and they have that whereon they can rely in their demand; and the judgment is a judgment of truth; and everything is prepared for the feast. Judaism. Mishnah, Abot 3.20 Not in the sky, nor in mid-ocean, nor in a mountain cave, is found that place on earth where abiding one may escape from the consequences of one's evil deed. Buddhism. Dhammapada 127 Though they dig into Sheol, from there shall my hand take them; though they climb up to heaven, from there I will bring them down. Though they hide themselves on the top of Carmel, from there I will search out and take them; and though they hide from my sight at the bottom of the sea, there I will command the serpent, and it shall bite them. And though they go into captivity before their enemies, there I will command the sword, and it shall slay them; and I will set my eyes upon them for evil and not for good. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Amos 9.2-4 According as one acts, according as one conducts himself, so does he become. The doer of good becomes good. The doer of evil becomes evil. One becomes virtuous by virtuous action, bad by bad action. But people say, "A person is made [not of acts, but] of desires only." [I say,] as his desire, such is his resolve; as is his resolve, such the action he performs; what action he performs, that he procures for himself. On this point there is this verse, Where one's mind is attached--the inner self Goes thereto with action, being attached to it alone. Obtaining the end of his action, Whatever he does in this world, He comes again from that world To this world of action. So the mind who desires. Hinduism. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5-6 Pao-p'u Tzu: Written by Ko Hung (253-333), the Pao-p'u Tzu is among the most important classics of religious Taoism. It expounds belief in the Taoist Immortals, the doctrine of retribution, and the use of alchemical means to prolong life. Abot 3.20: The image of the ledger is a frequent one; cf. Abot 4.29, p. 346; Qur'an 17.13-14, 39.68-75, 50.17-19, pp. 345-48; 69.13-37, pp. 1098f.; Revelation 20.11-12, p. 346; Ramkali-ki-Var, M.1, p. 299. Amos 9.2-4: Cf. Qur'an 2.115, Atharva Veda 4.16, p. 111. Action, which springs from the mind, from speech, and from the body, produces either good or evil results; by action are caused the conditions of men, the highest, the middling, and the lowest. A man obtains the result of a good or evil mental act in his mind; that of a verbal act in his speech; that of a bodily act in his body. In consequence of sinful acts committed with his body, a man becomes in the next birth an inanimate thing; in consequence of sins committed by speech, he becomes a bird or a beast; in consequence of mental sins he is reborn in a low caste. Hinduism. Laws of Manu 12.3,8,9 According to what deeds are done Do their resulting consequences come to be; Yet the doer has no existence: This is the Buddha's teaching. Like a clear mirror, According to what comes before it, Reflecting forms, each different, So is the nature of actions. Buddhism. Garland Sutra 10 As you plan for somebody so God plans for you. African Traditional Religions. Igbo Proverb (Nigeria) Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5-6: This classic text describes the principle by which karma determines the site of reincarnation. Cf. Vedanta Sutra 1.2.1, p. 338; Svetasvatara Upanishad 5.11-12, p. 696. Laws of Manu 12.1-9: Cf. Vedanta Sutra 1.2.1, p. 338; Maitri Upanishad 4.2, p. 696. Garland Sutra 10: This passage reconciles karma and voidness. A person is subject to karma only as long as he dwells in the illusion that he exists as a self. Intrinsically empty of self, a person is like a clear mirror whose purity is not affected by the reflections that impinge upon it. Thus the person who courses in enlightenment will not accumulate new karma, though he may still have to work out the effects of past deeds. Cf. Majjhima Nikaya i.389-90, p. 345 and Anguttara Nikaya iii.33, p. 697. All creatures on their actions are judged In God's court, just and true. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Japuji 34, p. 7 God is not hornless; He is horned: He exacts punishment for every deed. African Traditional Religions. Ovambo Proverb (Angola) I the Lord search the mind and try the heart, to give to every man according to his ways, according to the fruit of his doings. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Jeremiah 17.10 Whoever vows to tyrannize over the humble and the meek, The Supreme Lord burns him in flames. The Creator dispenses perfect justice And preserves His devotee. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Gauri, M.5, p. 199 To God belongs all that is in the heavens and on the earth; and whether you make known what is in your minds or hide it, God will bring you to account for it. He will forgive whom He will and He will punish whom He will. God is able to do all things. Islam. Qur'an 2.284 Never mind if the people are not intimidated by your [correct] authority. A mightier Authority will deal with them in the end. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 72 For the Son of man is to come with his angels in the glory of his Father, and then he will repay every man for what he has done. Christianity. Bible, Matthew 16.27 Ovambo Proverb: Cf. Yoruba Song, p. 701; Igbo Consecration, p. 769. Jeremiah 17.10: Cf. Hebrews 4.12-13, p. 110. Qur'an 2.284: Cf. Qur'an 14.38, p. 109. God's attributes of justice and mercy are often in seeming contradiction; see Abot 3.19, p. 687; Rig Veda 7.86.1-4, p. 904. Matthew 16.27: Cf. Matthew 25.31-46, p. 990; 13.47-50, p. 1097. Holy, then, did I recognize Thee, O Wise Lord. I perceived Thee foremost at the birth of life, When Thou didst endow acts and words with retribution: Bad unto bad, good blessing unto holy, Through Thy wisdom, at the final goal of life! Zoroastrianism. Avesta, Yasna 43.5 Even if the wrong-doers had all that there is on earth, and as much more, in vain would they offer it for ransom from the pain of the penalty on the Day of Judgment, but something will confront them from God which they could never have counted upon! For the evils of their deeds will confront them, and they will be encircled by that at which they used to mock! Islam. Qur'an 39.47-48 Upon that Day men shall issue in scatterings to see their works, And whoso has done an atom's weight of good shall see it, And whoso has done an atom's weight of evil shall see it. Islam. Qur'an 99.6-8 And it is requisite with the justice of God that men should be judged according to their works; and if their works were good in this life, and the desires of their hearts were good, that they should also, in the last day, be restored unto that which is good. And if their works are evil they shall be restored unto them for evil. Therefore, all things shall be restored to their proper order, every thing to its natural frame--mortality raised to immortality, corruption to incorruption--raised to endless happiness to inherit the kingdom of God, or to endless misery to inherit the kingdom of the devil, the one on one hand, the other on the other. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Book of Mormon, Alma 41.3-4 Alike of you is he who conceals his speech, and he who proclaims it, he who hides himself in the night, and he who sallies forth by day; he has attendant angels, before him and behind him, watching over him by God's command. Islam. Qur'an 13.10-11 Yasna 43.5: Cf. Yansa 48.4, p. 408. The 'final goal of life' will come at the Last Judgment--see Yasna 30.8-10, p. 1098. Qur'an 39.47-48: Cf. Qur'an 69.13-37, pp. 1098f. and similar passages on the last judgment. Qur'an 13.10-11: Cf. Qur'an 41.30-31, p. 368; 50.17-19, p. 347. Atharva Veda 4.16.4, p. 111, speaks of Varuna's 'envoys' who spy out the doings of men. The Exalted One says, "There are no special doors for calamity and happiness [in men's lot]; they come as men themselves call them. Their recompenses follow good and evil as the shadow follows the substance." Accordingly, in heaven and earth there are spirits that take account of men's transgressions, and, according to the lightness or gravity of their offenses, take away from their term of life. When that term is curtailed, men become poor and reduced, and meet with many sorrows and afflictions. All people hate them; punishments and calamities attend them; good luck and occasions for felicitation shun them; evil stars send down misfortune on them. When their term of life is exhausted they die. Taoism. Treatise on Response and Retribution 1-2 Treatise on Response and Retribution 1-2: In popular Chinese religion, the Spirit of the Hearth ascends to Heaven annually to report on the deeds which transpired in that family, at which time a determination is made on each individual's span of life; see Tract of the Quiet Way, p. 347. Compare Qur'an 39.42, p. 333; Igbo Consecration, p. 769. Creation RejoicesThe natural world is not an object of our manipulation. It is a community of living, sentient beings that suffers or rejoices according to how it is treated by human beings. The scriptures teach that, for those who have eyes to see, nature is exquisitely sensitive to the spirit and attitude of people. The creation 'groans in travail' when it is misused and defiled, and rejoices when it can serve God through serving the children of God. Indeed, the virtuous person brings redemption to nature.Confucius said, "It is Goodness that gives to a neighborhood its beauty." Confucianism. Analects 4.1 Whether in village or in forest, in vale or on hill, wherever arahants dwell--delightful, indeed, is that spot. Buddhism. Dhammapada 98 The perfume of flowers blows not against the wind, nor does the fragrance of sandalwood, tagara and jasmine, but the fragrance of the virtuous blows against the wind; the virtuous man pervades every direction. Buddhism. Dhammapada 54 The earth's condition is receptive devotion. Thus the superior man who has breadth of character Carries the outer world. Confucianism. I Ching 2: The Receptive May no living creatures, not even insects, Be bound unto samsaric life; nay, not one of them; But may I be empowered to save them all. Buddhism. Milarepa Dhammapada 98: Cf. Titus 1.15, p. 725. I Ching 2: Cf. Chuang Tzu 12, p. 312. Good sons and daughters who accept the true Law, build the great earth, and carry the four responsibilities, become friends without being asked, for the sake of all living beings. In their great compassion, they comfort and sympathize with living beings, becoming the Dharma-mother of the world. Buddhism. Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala 4 Only those who are absolutely sincere can fully develop their nature. If they can fully develop their nature, they can then fully develop the nature of others. If they can fully develop the nature of others, they can then fully develop the nature of things. If they can fully develop the nature of things, they can then assist in the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth. If they can assist in the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth, they can thus form with Heaven and Earth a trinity. Confucianism. Doctrine of the Mean 22 There is a holy man living on faraway Ku-she Mountain, with skin like ice or snow, and gentle and shy like a young girl. He doesn't eat the five grains, but sucks the wind, drinks the dew, climbs up on the clouds and mist, rides a flying dragon, and wanders beyond the four seas. By concentrating his spirit, he can protect creatures from sickness and plague and make the harvest plentiful... This man, with his virtue of his, is about to embrace the ten thousand things and roll them into one. Taoism. Chuang Tzu 1 Mencius went to see King Hui of Liang. The king was standing over a pond. "Are such things enjoyed even by a good and wise man?" said he, looking round at his wild geese and deer. "Only if a man is good and wise," answered Mencius, "is he able to enjoy them. Otherwise he would not, even if he had them. The Book of Songs says, He surveyed and began the Sacred Terrace, He surveyed it and measured it; The people worked at it; In less than no time they finished it. He surveyed and began without haste; The people came in ever-increasing numbers. The king was in the Sacred Park. The doe lay down; The does were sleek; The white birds glistened. The king was at the Sacred Pond. Oh! how full it was of leaping fish! It was with the labor of the people that King Wen built his terrace and pond, yet so pleased and delighted were they that they named his terrace the "Sacred Terrace" and his pond the "Sacred Pond," and rejoiced at his possession of deer, fish, and turtles. It was by sharing their enjoyments with the people that men of antiquity were able to enjoy themselves. The T'ang shih says, O Sun [the tyrant Chieh], when wilt thou perish? We care not if we have to die with thee. "When the people were prepared 'to die with' him, even if the tyrant had a terrace and pond, birds and beasts, could he have enjoyed them all by himself?" Confucianism. Mencius I.A.2 Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala 4: Cf. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 1, p. 1034. Doctrine of the Mean 22: Cf. Doctrine of the Mean 1.4-5, p. 228f. Srimad Bhagavatam 11.8, p. 761; Nihon Shoki 22, p. 372. Chuang Tzu 1: Cf. Chuang Tzu 13, p. 311; Rig Veda 10.136.1-4, p. 314. For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God; for the creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of Him who subjected it in hope; because the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God. We know that the whole creation has been groaning in travail together until now; and not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. Christianity. Bible, Romans 8.19-23 Since folk are ablaze with unlawful lusts, overwhelmed by depraved longings, depressed by wrong doctrines, on such as these the sky rains down not steadily. It is hard to get a meal. The crops are bad, afflicted with mildew and grown to mere stubs. Accordingly, many come to their end. Buddhism. Anguttara Nikaya i.50 Hear the word of the Lord, O people of Israel; for the Lord has a controversy with the inhabitants of the land. There is no faithfulness or kindness, there is no knowledge of God in the land; There is swearing, lying, killing, stealing, and committing adultery; they break all bounds and murder follows murder. Therefore the land mourns, and all who dwell in it languish, and also the beasts of the field, and the birds of the air, and even the fish of the sea are taken away. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Hosea 4.1-3 Anguttara Nikaya i.50: Cf. Golden Light Sutra 12, pp. 1090f.; Book of Songs, Ode 254, pp. 1089f; Chuang Tzu 10, p. 799. Even the attitude of the spirits reflects the heart of people: cf. Vamana Purana 19.31-35, p. 443. Hosea 4.1-3: Cf. Jeremiah 7.1-15, p. 1088; Exodus 20.1-17, p. 166. Enoch looked upon the earth; and he heard a voice from the bowels thereof, saying, "Woe, woe is me, the mother of men; I am pained, I am weary, because of the wickedness of my children. When shall I rest, and be cleansed from the filthiness which is gone forth out of me? When will my Creator sanctify me, that I may rest, and righteousness for a season abide upon my face?" And when Enoch heard the earth mourn, he wept, and cried unto the Lord, saying, "O Lord, wilt Thou not have compassion upon the earth?" Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Pearl of Great Price, Moses 7.48-49 To you did the soul of the ox complain, "For whom did you create me? Who made me? Fury and violence oppress me, and cruelty and tyranny. I have no shepherd other than you: then obtain good pastures for me." Then the Creator of the ox asked Right, "Have you a judge for the ox, That you may give him, with the pasture, the care for the raising of the cattle? Whom did you appoint his master who shall put to flight Fury together with the wicked?" As Righteousness, reply was made, "No companion is there for the ox That is free from hatred. Men do not understand How the great deal with the lowly. Of all beings he is the strongest To whose aid I come at his call.... "With hands outstreched we pray to the Lord, We two, my soul and the soul of the mother-cow, Urging the Wise One to command that no harm shall come to the honest man, To the herdsman, in the midst of the wicked who surround him." Then spoke the Wise Lord himself, he who understands the prayers in his soul: "No master has been found, no judge according to Righteousness, For the breeder and the herdsman has the Creator fashioned you. The ordinance of sprinkling the water of the cattle, for the welfare of the ox, And the milk for the welfare of men desiring food, This has the Wise Lord, the Holy One, Fashioned by his decree, in accord with Righteousness." --"Whom hast thou, as Good Mind, who may take care of us two for men?" "I know but this one, Zarathustra Spitama, the only one who has heard our teaching; He will make known our purpose, O Wise One, and that of Righteousness. Sweetness of speech shall be given to him." Pearl of Great Price, Moses 7.48-49: Cf. Pearl of Great Price, Moses 7.27-37, p. 458. And then moaned the ox-soul: "That I should have to be content With the powerless word of a man without strength for a guardian, I who wish for a strong master! Will he ever be, he who shall help him with his hands?" Zoroastrianism. Avesta, Yasna 29.1-9 In the days when natural instincts prevailed, men moved quietly and gazed steadily. At that time, there were no roads over mountains, nor boats, nor bridges over water. All things were produced, each for its own proper sphere. Birds and beasts multiplied; trees and shrubs grew up. The former might be led by the hand; you could climb up and peep into a raven's nest. For then man dwelt with the birds and beasts, and all creation was one. There were no distinctions of good and bad men; being all equally without knowledge, their virtue could not go astray. Being all equally without evil desires, they were in a state of natural integrity, the perfection of human existence. Taoism. Chuang Tzu 9 The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the calf and the lion and the fatling together, and a little child shall lead them. The cow and the bear shall feed; their young shall lie down together; and the lion shall eat straw like the ox. The sucking child shall play over the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the adder's den. They shall not hurt or destroy in all My holy mountain; for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 11.6-9 Yasna 49.1-9: In this dialogue in heaven, the soul of the ox complains that he is oppressed by the wicked. He asks for justice from his creator, but the reply comes that there is no one. The soul of the ox and his mate pray again to God, who replies that the ox has been put in the power of man. But He also decrees laws of reciprocal service by which the oxen and mankind can live in harmony. The ox, not satisfied, asks for a righteous protector who will practice these laws. He is told he must make do with Zarathustra, who however lacks the power to actualize the teaching. When, the ox asks, will that teaching prevail, that he may be saved? Zoroastrianism in fact abolished the ritual slaughter of oxen which was practiced among the Vedic Aryans. Chuang Tzu 9: Cf. Tao Te Ching 80, p. 291; Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda 130, p. 291; Book of Ritual 7.1.2, p. 293; Ghost Dance, p. 1117. Isaiah 11.6-9: Cf. Divine Principle I.1.3.1, p. 205. Crossing The WatersThe religions born in India share a common symbol of salvation as crossing the waters. The waters represent the painful existence in the world, plagued by ills, a continual passing from life to death in samsara. Tossed about on the turbulent sea, the wayfarer finds rest only on the other shore, the firm ground of Nirvana. In the Judeo-Christian scriptures, crossing the waters is also a symbol of salvation, drawn from the historical tradition of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea under divine protection and later crossing the Jordan River to reach the promised land.Carry us across, as by a boat across the sea, for our good. Shining bright, drive away our sin. Hinduism. Rig Veda 1.97.8 The body, they say, is a boat and the soul is the sailor. Samsara is the ocean which is crossed by the great sages. Jainism. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 23.73 Rig Veda 1.97.8: Cf. Satapatha Brahmana 4.2.5.10, p. 871. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 23.73: See Uttaradhyayana Sutra 10.34, p. 746. Even if you were the most sinful of sinners, Arjuna, you could cross beyond all sin by the raft of spiritual wisdom. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 4.36 Strive and cleave the stream. Discard, O brahmin, sense-desires. Knowing the destruction of conditioned things, be a knower of the Unmade. Buddhism. Dhammapada 383 As they call the great ocean a boundless flood of water, difficult to traverse with the arms alone, so should the learned one know and renounce it [samsara]: that sage is called "Maker of the End." Jainism. Acarangasutra 2.16.10 Few are there among men who go across to the further shore; the rest of mankind only run about on the bank. But those who act rightly according to the teaching, as has been well taught, will cross over to the other shore, for the realm of passions is so difficult to cross. Buddhism. Dhammapada 85-86 Save me, O God! For the waters have come up to my neck. I sink in deep mire, where there is no foothold; I have come into deep waters, and the flood sweeps over me. Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 69.1-2 The Lord reigns, he is robed in majesty; the Lord is robed, he is girded with strength. Yea, the world is established; it shall never be moved. Your throne is established from of old, You are from everlasting. The floods have lifted up, O Lord, the floods have lifted up their voice, the floods lift up their roaring. Mightier than the thunders of many waters, mightier than the waves of the sea, The Lord on high is mighty! Bhagavad Gita 4.36: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 12.5-7, p. 761; Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.6, p. 839; Narada Dharma Sutra 1.210, p. 159; Svetasvatara Upanishad 2.8, pp. 842f. Dhammapada 383: Cf. Sutta Nipata 948, p. 531; Dhammapada 414, pp. 231f. Dhammapada 85-86: On desires as the stream, see Dhammapada 338-47, p. 418. On the metaphor of the teaching as a raft for crossing to the other shore, see Majjhima Nikaya i.134-135, p. 802. Your decrees are very sure; holiness befits your house, O Lord, for evermore. Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 93 Once Rabbi Phinehas was going to the house of study, and the river Ginai which he had to pass was so swollen that he could not cross it. He said, "O river, why do you prevent me from getting to the house of study?" Then it divided its waters, and he passed over. And his disciples said, "Can we too pass over?" He said, "He who knows that he has never insulted an Israelite can pass over unharmed." Judaism. Jerusalem Talmud, Demai 22a Suppose, monks, a man is carried along a river by a current which looks delightful and charming. Then a sharp-sighted man standing on the bank sees him and calls out, "My friend! Though you are being carried along in the river by a current which seems delightful and charming, yet further down here is a pool with waves and whirlpools, with monsters and demons. My friend, when you get there you will come by your death or mortal pain!" Hearing the other's call, that man struggles against the stream with hands and feet. This parable, monks, I use to explain my meaning. The river current is craving; 'looking delightful and charming' refers to one's own sphere of perception. The pool lower down is the five fetters belonging to this lower world; its waves are the five pleasures of sense; monsters and demons refer to women. His going against the stream refers to renunciation; struggle with hands and feet means to put forth energy. The sharp-sighted man standing on the bank is the Wayfarer, Arahant, a Rightly-awakened One. Buddhism. Itivuttaka 114-15 Man's life is a poison-laden ship, tossed into the ocean; The shore is not visible as it floats in the midst of the waters. Neither is there oar in hand, nor is there a pilot in this terrible vast sea. Friend! The world is caught in a mighty snare, Only by Divine grace and meditating on the holy Name May man remain afloat. God is the ship; the holy Word the pilot. Where there is God's Word, neither wind nor fire, nor waves, Nor any frightful forms have power: There the holy eternal Name alone abides, Which carries man across the ocean of worldliness. Those going over it, by divine grace reach the other shore. Engrossed in devotion to the Eternal; Their transmigration is ended; Their light is merged into the light of the infinite. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Maru Ashtpadi, M.1, p. 1009 Demai 22a: Stories of sages crossing a physical body of water are common to many traditions. There are stories of the Buddha crossing a river to his disciples; Jesus walking on water in Matthew 14.24-31, p. 759; a Taoist sage walking through a cataract in Chuang Tzu 19; and Moses crossing the Red Sea in Exodus 14, pp. 615f. Itivuttaka 114-15: Cf. Dhammapada 338-47, p. 418. 'Wayfarer,' etc. are titles of the Buddha. Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of the Lord; awake, as in days of old, the generations of long ago. Was it not you that cut Rahab in pieces, that pierced the dragon? Was it not you that dried up the sea, the waters of the great deep; that made the depths of the sea a way for the redeemed to pass over? And the ransomed of the Lord shall return, and come to Zion with singing; everlasting joy shall be upon their heads; they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 51.9-11 When you go over the Jordan, and live in the land which the Lord your God gives you to inherit, and when he gives you rest from all your enemies round about... you shall rejoice before the Lord your God. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Deuteronomy 12.10-12 The rocky stream flows on: hold you all together, quit you like heroes, and cross over, my friends! Leave here all those that are evil-minded, let us cross to powers who are undiseased. Stand erect, and cross you over, my comrades! This rocky river flows on before us. Abandon here all those that are malicious, let us cross to powers, benign and pleasant. Hinduism. Atharva Veda 12.2.26-27 Maru Ashtpadi, M.1: Cf. Suhi Chhant, M.5, p. 898. Isaiah 51.9-11: Isaiah likens the new salvation of God to God's mighty acts in history. At the creation, He pierced the dragon of chaos (Rahab), which ancient cosmogony identified with the waters of the deep (cf. note to Laws of Manu 1.5-16, p. 131) and dried up the primeval waters to construct the world. At the Exodus God divided the Red Sea and opened a way for the Israelites to cross dry-shod; cf. Exodus 14, pp. 615f. Deuteronomy 12.10-12: In the faith of Black Americans, crossing the Jordan River is a metaphor for crossing from the troubles of this world to the peaceful abode of Heaven. Atharva Veda 12.2.26-27: These verses are sung at funeral ceremonies. On a bridge to cross over the waters of hell, cf. Yasna 46.10-11, p. 349; Hadith of Bukhari and Muslim, p. 349. Cultivate The GoodIf, continually and over a long time, a person practices good deeds, he will form good habits. Good habits cultivated over a long time lead to the formation of good character. According to the Parable of the Sower, the human spirit is like a field that must be sowed, cultivated, and weeded if it is to bear a good crop. People can only develop good habits by constant practice; otherwise they will develop bad habits that become progressively more difficult to break. Thus good begets good, while evil begets evil. We also include several passages which suggest that even doing good for bad or base motives can be beneficial by encouraging good habits.Not to do any evil, to cultivate good, to purify one's mind--this is the teaching of the Buddhas. Buddhism. Dhammapada 183 Immaturity: A watery hole at the foot of a mountain amidst uncultivated growth. The superior man by determined good conduct nourishes his virtue. Confucianism. I Ching 4: Immaturity By the... soul, and Him who perfected it and inspired it with conscience of what is wrong for it and right for it: He is indeed successful who causes it to grow, and he is indeed a failure who stunts it. Islam. Qur'an 91.7-10 By sustained effort, earnestness, discipline, and self-control, let the wise man make for himself an island which no flood can overwhelm. Buddhism. Dhammapada 25 Dhammapada 183: This may well be the most famous aphorism of the Buddha. Train yourself in godliness; for while bodily training is of some value, godliness is of value in every way, as it holds promise for the present life and also for the life to come. Christianity. 1 Timothy 4.7-8 This Atman, resplendent and pure, whom the sinless disciples behold residing within the body, is attained by unceasing practice of truthfulness, austerity, right knowledge, and continence. Hinduism. Mundaka Upanishad 3.1.5 Birth does not lead to greatness; but cultivation of numerous virtues by a man leads him to greatness. It is a pearl that possesses real greatness and not the pair of shells in which it is produced. Jainism. Vajjalagam 687 Gain: The superior man, seeing what is good, imitates it; Seeing what is bad, he corrects it in himself. Confucianism. I Ching 42: Gain The domain of voidness, yet where one cultivates all types of virtues, such is the domain of the bodhisattva. Buddhism. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 5 Make every effort to supplement your faith with virtue, and virtue with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with steadfastness, and steadfastness with godliness, and godliness with brotherly affection, and brotherly affection with love. For if these things are yours and abound, they keep you from being ineffective or unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. For whoever lacks these things is blind and shortsighted and has forgotten that he was cleansed from his old sins. Therefore, brethren, be the more zealous to confirm your call and election, for if you do this you will never fall; so there will be richly provided for you an entrance into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Christianity. 2 Peter 1.5-11 1 Timothy 4.7-8: Paul frequently compares inner training to the physical training of an athlete: see 1 Corinthians 9.24-27, p. 745. Cf. Dhammapada 80, p. 731; Chuang Tzu 19, p. 204. Mundaka Upanishad 3.1.5: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 5.24, p. 533. I Ching 42: Cf. Analects 7.3, 7.28, p. 657. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 5: This and the following passage teach that attaining enlightenment or receiving salvation are not excuses for ceasing to cultivate the good. Mahayana Buddhism teaches that everything phenomenal is void (sunya), yet that void is the womb of everything. Voidness correctly realized generates wisdom and compassion; these direct one to cultivate the good. Run to do even a slight precept, and flee from transgression; for precept draws precept in its train, and transgression, transgression; for the recompense of a precept is a precept, and the recompense of a transgression is a transgression. Judaism. Mishnah, Abot 4.2 Make haste in doing good; check your mind from evil; for the mind of him who is slow in doing meritorious actions delights in evil. Should a person commit evil, he should not do it again and again; he should not find pleasure therein: painful is the accumulation of evil. Should a person perform a meritorious action, he should do it again and again; he should find pleasure therein: blissful is the accumulation of merit. Buddhism. Dhammapada 116-18 Do not disregard evil, saying, "It will not come nigh unto me": by the falling of drops even a water jar is filled; likewise the fool, gathering little by little, fills himself with evil. Do not disregard merit, saying "It will not come nigh unto me": by the falling of drops of water even a water jar is filled; likewise the wise man, gathering little by little, fills himself with good. Buddhism. Dhammapada 121-22 Black goats must be caught early, before it is dark. African Traditional Religions. Igala Proverb (Nigeria) If you neglect the Torah, many causes for neglecting it will present themselves to you. Judaism. Mishnah, Abot 4.12 Mencius said to Kau Tzu, "A trail through the mountains, if used, becomes a path in a short time, but, if unused, becomes blocked by grass in an equally short time. Now your heart is blocked by grass." Confucianism. Mencius VII.B.21 If one guards himself against sin three times, the Holy One guards him from then on. Judaism. Jerusalem Talmud, Kiddushin 1.9 Engage in Torah and charity even with an ulterior motive, for the habit of right doing will lead also to right motivation. Judaism. Talmud, Pesahim 50b Igala Proverb: This means nip problems in the bud before they escalate. The Master said, "The inferior man is not ashamed of unkindness and does not shrink from injustice. If no advantage beckons he makes no effort. If he is not intimidated he does not improve himself, but if he is made to behave correctly in small matters he is careful in large ones. This is fortunate for the inferior man. This is what is meant when it is said in the I Ching, 'His feet are fastened in the stocks, so that he cannot walk. No blame' [Hexagram 21, Biting Through]. "If good does not accumulate, it is not enough to make a name for a man. If evil does not accumulate, it is not enough to destroy a man. Therefore the inferior man thinks to himself, Goodness in small things has no value, and so neglects it. He thinks, Small sins do no harm, and so does not give them up. Thus his sins accumulate until they can no longer be covered up, and his guilt becomes so great that it can no longer be wiped out. In the I Ching it is said, 'His neck is fastened in the wooden cangue, so that his ears are hidden. Misfortune' [Hexagram 21, Shih Ho]." Confucianism. I Ching, Great Commentary 2.5.7-8 The Holy One gives wisdom only to him who has wisdom. Judaism. Talmud, Berakot 55a For to him who has will more be given, and he will have abundance; but from him who has not, even what he has will be taken away. Christianity. Bible, Matthew 13.12 If there is no host on the inside to receive it [the Tao], it will not stay; if there is no mark on the outside to guide it, it will not go. If what is brought forth from the inside is not received on the outside, then the sage will not bring it forth. If what is taken in from the outside is not received by a host on the inside, the sage will not entrust it. Taoism. Chuang Tzu 14 "Listen! A sower went out to sow. And as he sowed, some seed fell along the path, and the birds came and devoured it. Other seed fell on rocky ground, where it had not much soil, and immediately it sprang up, since it had no depth of soil; and when the sun rose it was scorched, and since it had no root it withered away. Other seed fell among thorns, and the thorns grew up and choked it. And other seeds fell into good soil and brought forth grain, growing up and increasing and yielding thirtyfold, and sixtyfold and a hundredfold.... "Do you not understand this parable?... The sower sows the word. And these are the ones along the path, where the word is sown; when they hear, Satan immediately comes and takes away the word which is sown in them. And these in like manner are the ones sown upon rocky ground, who, when they hear the word, immediately receive it with joy; and they have no root in themselves, but endure for a while; then, when tribulation or persecution arises on account of the word, immediately they fall away. And others are the ones sown among thorns; they are those who hear the word, but the cares of the world, and the delight in riches, and the desire for other things, enter in and choke the word, and it proves unfruitful. But those that were sown upon good soil are the ones who hear the word and accept it and bear fruit, thirtyfold and sixty- fold and a hundredfold." Christianity. Mark 4.3-20: Parable of the Sower Chuang Tzu 14: Cf. Tao Te Ching 41, p. 805 Matthew 13.12: Cf. the Parable of the Talents, Matthew 25.14-30, p. 1015. Mark 4.3-20: The individual's capacity for truth determines the degree of its reception. Yet that capacity is itself something to be cultivated, by clearing away the thorns and pulling up the weeds so that the Word of God may bear fruit. Cf. Tao Te Ching 41, p. 805. DecisionThe religious life begins with a decision. It is not something that comes in the natural course of an unexamined life, but it must be consciously chosen and cleaved to. Neither can the decision be compelled by human authorities, nor by the power of Heaven. The call to faith must be entered into freely. Often the call to decision is an exhortation to awaken to the real dangers and fragility of human life: the inevitability of death, the awareness of the sinfulness of one's life, the looming threat of hell and punishment. In the light of these dangers, religion offers a sure refuge and way to salvation. This decision is commonly described as between two possibilities: life or death, the narrow gate or the wide gate, two roads. This decision also requires a commitment based upon knowledge sufficient that one will not later be swayed by doubts."Men, what must I do to be saved?" And they said, "Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your household." Christianity. Acts 16.30-31 Say, "O mankind, I am the Messenger of God to you all, of Him to whom belongs the sovereignty of the heavens and the earth. There is no God but He. He gives life, and He makes to die. So believe in God, and His messenger, the Prophet who can neither read nor write, who believes in God and in His words, and follow him that haply you may be led aright." Islam. Qur'an 7.158 Seek refuge with the Lord alone, with your whole being, Bharata. By His grace, you will reach supreme peace, an everlasting estate. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 18.62 To many a refuge fear-stricken men betake themselves--to hills, woods, groves, trees, and shrines. Nay, no such refuge is safe, no such refuge is supreme. Not by resorting to such a refuge is one freed from ill. He who has gone for refuge to the Buddha [the teacher], the Dhamma [the teaching], and the Sangha [the taught], sees with right knowledge the Four Noble Truths: Sorrow, the Cause of Sorrow, the Transcending of Sorrow and the Noble Eightfold Path which leads to the Cessation of Sorrow. This, indeed, is refuge secure. By seeking such refuge one is released from all sorrow. Buddhism. Dhammapada 188-192 Young person, run to embrace Ifa. Young person, run to embrace Ifa. If people deceive you, Dhammapada 188-192: Cf. Khuddaka Patha, p. 53. Do not accept. If people deceive you, Do not accept. Truth is bitter. The future of the world belongs to Ifa It will certainly not be spoiled in our own time. It will not be spoiled in our own time. The world will not be spoiled in our own time. Ifa will mend it. African Traditional Religions. Yoruba Hymn (Nigeria) Confucius said, "Set your heart upon the Way, support yourself by its power, lean upon goodness, seek distraction in the arts." Confucianism. Analects 7.6 Arise! Awake! Approach the great and learn. Like the sharp edge of a razor is that path--so the wise say--hard to tread and difficult to cross. Hinduism. Katha Upanishad 1.3.14 Enter by the narrow gate; for the gate is wide and the way is easy that leads to destruction, and those who enter by it are many. For the gate is narrow and the way is hard that leads to life, and those who find it are few. Christianity. Matthew 7.13-14 Man always stands at the crossroads of good and evil. Perfect Liberty Kyodan. Precepts 18 Surely, the path that leads to worldly gain is one, and the path that leads to Nibb-ana is another; understanding this, the bhikkhu, the disciple of the Buddha, should not rejoice in wordily favors, but cultivate detachment. Buddhism. Dhammapada 75 Have We not granted him two eyes, and a tongue, and two lips, and guided him on the two high roads? Yet he has not assaulted the Steep! What will make you realize what is the Steep? To free a slave, or to give food at a time of hunger, to an orphan near of kin or a needy man in misery; then to become one who believes, and to counsel each other to be steadfast, and to counsel each other to be merciful. Islam. Qur'an 90.8-17 Yoruba Hymn: Ifa is the name of one of the high Yoruba divinities, but it also means Yoruba religion as a whole. Both meanings are used here. Katha Upanishad 1.3.14: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 4.34-35, p. 814; Uttaradhyayana Sutra 10.28-33, p. 962. Dhammapada 75: See previous note. Thus says the Lord: "Stand by the roads, and look, and ask for the ancient paths, where the good way is; and walk in it, and find rest for your souls." Judaism and Christianity. Jeremiah 6.16 They say only, "Lo! we found our fathers following a religion, and we are guided by their footprints." And even so We sent not a warner before you [Muhammad] into any township, but its luxurious ones said, "Lo! We found our fathers following a religion, and we are following their footprints." And the warner said, "What! Even though I bring you better guidance than that you found your fathers following?" They answered, "Lo! In what you bring we are disbelievers." We have requited them; see what was the consequence for the deniers. Islam. Qur'an 43.22-25 Jesus said to them, "No one puts new wine into old wineskins; if he does, the new wine will burst the skins and will be spilled, and the skins will be destroyed. But new wine must be put into fresh wineskins." Christianity. Luke 5.37-38 Were I but possessed of the least knowledge, I would, when walking on the great way, fear only paths that lead astray. The great Way is easy, yet people prefer bypaths. The court is corrupt, The fields are overgrown with weeds, The granaries are empty; Yet there are those dressed in fineries, With swords at their sides, Filled with food and drink, And possessed of too much wealth. This is known as taking the lead in robbery. Far indeed is this from the Way. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 53 Qur'an 90.8-17: The two highways are the steep and difficult path of virtue--called the Steep--and the easy path of vice and self-centered living. On the Straight Path, see Qur'an 1, p. 53. Qur'an 43.22-25: In contrasting this and the preceding passage, recall that Muhammad was a prophet who brought a new teaching that differed from the traditions of the polytheists, while Jeremiah was a prophet who called his people back to the fundamentals of the Covenant of Moses. Luke 5.37-38: Jesus brought a new message, 'new wine'; it could not abide with those who were attached to the conventional wisdom, the 'old wineskins.' Cf. Luke 9.60, p. 583. A man once gave a great banquet, and invited many; and at the time for the banquet he sent his servant to say to those who had been invited, "Come; for all is now ready." But they all alike began to make excuses. The first said to him, "I have bought a field, and I must go out and see it; I pray you, have me excused." And another said, "I have bought five yoke of oxen, and I go to examine them; I pray you, have me excused." And another said, "I have married a wife, and therefore I cannot come." So the servant came and reported this to his master. Then the householder in anger said to his servant, "Go out quickly to the streets and lanes of the city, and bring in the poor and maimed and blind and lame." And the servant said, "Sir, what you commanded has been done, and still there is room." And the master said to his servant, "Go out to the highways and hedges, and compel people to come in, that my house may be filled. For I tell you, none of those men who were invited shall taste my banquet." Christianity. Luke 14.16-24: Parable of the Banquet He who is not with me is against me. Christianity. Matthew 12.30 God puts forth a parable: A man belonging to many partners at variance with each other, and a man belonging entirely to one master: are those two equal in comparison? Islam. Qur'an 39.29 No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon. Christianity. Matthew 6.24 If by giving up a lesser happiness one may behold a greater one, let the wise man give up the lesser happiness in consideration of the greater happiness. Buddhism. Dhammapada 290 Tao Te Ching 53: The 'by paths' mean ways of avoiding or rationalizing away one's obligations for the sake of personal gain. Cf. Tao Te Ching 12, p. 934. Luke 14.16-24: In this parable, Jesus laments that the most qualified people make excuses that worldly occupations keep them from participating in God's kingdom. So God must call the poor and impoverished, who have nothing to lose. Cf. Matthew 16.26, p. 962; Luke 9.60, p. 583; 9.62, p. 742; Abot 2.8, p. 959; Digha Nikaya iii.185, p. 1013. On the other hand, compare Abot de Rabbi Nathan B, 31, p. 304. Matthew 12.30: Compare Bhagavad Gita 6.5-6, p. 391. Matthew 6.24: Cf. Matthew 16.26, p. 962. Dhammapada 290: Cf. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 4, p. 198. Both the good and the pleasant present themselves to a man. The calm soul examines them well and discriminates. Yea, he prefers the good to the pleasant; but the fool chooses the pleasant out of greed and avarice. Hinduism. Katha Upanishad 1.2.2 The Self-existent pierced sense openings outward; therefore a man looks out, not in. But a certain wise man, in search of immortality, turned his gaze inward and saw the Self within. The foolish go after outward pleasures and walk into the snare of all-embracing death. The wise, however, discerning [the path to] immortality, do not seek the permanent among things impermanent. Hinduism. Katha Upanishad 4.1-2 The kingdom of Heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which a man found and covered up; then in his joy he goes and sells all he has and buys that field. The kingdom of Heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls, who, on finding one pearl of great price, went and sold all he had and bought it. Christianity. Matthew 13.44-46 Hear with your ears that which is the sovereign good; With a clear mind look upon the two sides Between which each man must choose for himself, Watchful beforehand that the great test may be accomplished in our favor. Now at the beginning the twin spirits have declared their nature, The better and the evil, In thought and word and deed. And between the two The wise ones choose well, not so the foolish. Zoroastrianism. Avesta, Yasna 30.2-3 Behold, I [Moses] set before you this day a blessing and a curse: the blessing, if you obey the commandments of the Lord your God, which I command you this day, and the curse, if you do not obey the commandments of the Lord your God, but turn aside from the way which I command you this day, to go after other gods. Judaism and Christianity. Deuteronomy 11.26-28 Katha Upanishad 1.2.2: Cf. Chandogya Upanishad 7.23, p. 198; Dhammapada 7-8, p. 444. Katha Upanishad 4.1-2: Truth is found through meditation and fixing attention on the Self within, not by dealing with the deceptive and transient phenomena of the world. This is the most fundamental statement of Upanishadic philosophy. Cf. Mahabharata, Shanti Parva 177, p. 199; Udana 11, p. 199. Yasna 30.2-3: Cf. Yasna 30.3-5, p. 388, 49.3, p. 963. Deuteronomy 11.26-28: Cf. Deuteronomy 6.20-8.20, p. 1084. And now remember, remember my brethren, that whosoever perishes, perishes unto himself; and whosoever does iniquity, does it to himself; for behold, you are free; you are permitted to act for yourselves; for behold, God has given you a knowledge and has made you free. He has given to you that you might know good from evil; and he has given to you that you might choose life or death; and you can do good and be restored to that which is good, or have that which is good restored to you; or you can do evil, and have that which is evil restored to you. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Book of Mormon, Helaman 14.30-31 No compulsion is there in religion; rectitude has been distinguished from error. Islam. Qur'an 2.256 I [Krishna] give you these precious words of wisdom; reflect on them and then do as you choose. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 18.63 I am not biased in favor of Mahavira, nor averse to Kapila or other teachers. I am committed to the preaching that is truly rational. Jainism. Haribhadra, Loktattvanirnaya 38 Do not be misled by reports, or tradition, or hearsay. Be not led by the authority of religious texts, nor by mere logic or inference, nor by considering appearances, nor by the delight in speculative opinions, nor by seeming possibilities, nor by the idea: "This is our teacher." But when you know for yourselves that certain things are unwholesome and wrong, and bad, then give them up.... And when you know for yourselves that certain things are wholesome and good, then accept them and follow them. Buddhism. Anguttara Nikaya i.190-91, Kesaputta Sutta Qur'an 2.256: Cf. Qur'an 10.94-95, p. 759, 10.99-100, p. 65; Analects 12.19, p. 1072. Anguttara Nikaya i.190-91: Cf. Majjhima Nikaya i.318, p. 655, ii.16, p. 759; Vinaya ii.10, p. 64. Degraded Human NatureIn previous chapters, we have gathered passages which testify to humani- ty's true status as the highest sentient being; passages which describe the purity and goodness of the original human nature; passages which describe the perfection of human existence, filled with divine love and compassion. Yet in fact, most people exhibit a character that is more animal-like than divine. Human nature has fallen far from the ideal of love and holiness which is exalted by the world's religions.Many people, influenced by the Darwinian theory of evolution, regard the animal within human beings as an integral part of human nature, an inheritance from our ape-like progenitors. Indeed it is undeniable that the human being, by virtue of having a body, possesses instinctive and animal-like appetites and desires. But the position of most religions is that the essence of the human being is to be found in his spirit, which should dominate and control the body. Perhaps the meaning of evolution is that humans are in the process of transcending the animal stage and evolving to the point where the rational and ethical sense will be dominant. Thus, while human behavior often may be instinctual and low, it is not the expression of the human essence. It is rather a corruption of human nature and a regression from realizing the true purpose of life. In theistic religions, such behavior is viewed as the result of humankind's separation from God. A degraded human being may be regarded as even lower than an animal, for at least an animal strives to realize its limited purpose, while benighted humans stray far from theirs. The scripture passages gathered here approach this theme in three ways. Most people have deviated from their original nature, their hearts having become defiled and alienated from communion with God. The accumulation of sinful deeds, deluded thoughts, and base passions creates fetters that enslave those who indulge in them. Being thus degraded, they have sunk to the level of beasts and even lower. God made man upright, but they have sought out many devices. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Ecclesiastes 7.29 Surely We created man of the best stature; Then We reduced him to the lowest of the low, Save those who believe and do good works, and theirs is a reward unfailing. Islam. Qur'an 95.4-6 A little confusion can alter the sense of direction; a great confusion can alter the inborn nature. Taoism. Chuang Tzu 8 Be not like those who forget God, and therefore He made them forget their own souls! Islam. Qur'an 59.19 The effect of wrong belief is so dominant that the self does not evince its inborn inclination to the real path, just as the invasion of a bile-infected fever brings an aversion to sweet juice. Jainism. Nemichandra, Gomattasara This consciousness (citta) is luminous, but it is defiled by adventitious defilements. Buddhism. Anguttara Nikaya i.10 Delusion is a sort of demonic force. People's original mind is pure but it becomes perverted due to delusion and other karmas. Jainism. Kundakunda, Pancastikaya 38 Ecclesiastes 7.29: Cf. Romans 1.21-25, p. 396; Book of Songs, Ode 255, p. 385. Qur'an 95.4-6: Cf. Qur'an 70.19-22, p. 384. Chuang Tzu 8: Cf. Chuang Tzu 11, p. 421; Book of Songs, Ode 255, p. 385. Anguttara Nikaya i.10: Luminous consciousness is citta. Cf. Sutra of Hui Neng 6, p. 399; Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines 12.3, p. 402; Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 3, p. 220; Mahaparinirvana Sutra 214-15, p. 219. Satan said, "I will take of Thy servants a portion marked off; I will mislead them, and I will create in them false desires; I will order them... to deface the fair nature created by God." Whoever, forsaking God, takes Satan for a friend, has of a surety suffered a loss that is manifest. Satan makes them promises, and creates in them false desires; but Satan's promises are nothing but deception. Islam. Qur'an 4.118-20 Your mind, having become diseased and bewildered because of the false sense- conceptions accumulated since beginningless time, has developed many desires, attachments and habits. From these there have arisen, incident to the ever- changing processes of life, arbitrary conceptions concerning self and not-self and as to what is true and what is not true. These arbitrary conceptions have not developed in a normal way from your pure Mind Essence, but in an abnormal way because of the prior false conceptions that had their origin in the sense organs, like the sight of blossoms in the air that come to diseased minds. They falsely appear to have had their origin in the enlightening and Essential Mind but, in truth, they have arisen because of diseased conditions. Buddhism. Surangama Sutra Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened, that it cannot save, or His ear dull, that it cannot hear; but your iniquities have made a separation between you and your God, and your sins have hid His face from you so that He does not hear. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 59.1-2 All vices are like chains thrown around the neck. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Sorath, M.1 p. 595 Jesus answered them, "Truly, truly, I say to you, everyone who commits sin is a slave to sin." Christianity. Bible, John 8.34 Through wrong belief, indulgence, negligence, passions and activities the individual self attracts particles of matter which are fit to turn into karma, as the self is actuated by passions. This influx of karma results in bondage. Jainism. Tattvarthasutra 8.1-2 Surangama Sutra: Cf. Chuang Tzu 11, p. 421; Sutra of Hui Neng 6, p. 399. Sorath, M.1: Cf. Gauri Ashtpadi, M.1, p. 531. Tattvarthasutra 8.1-2: Cf. Pancadhyayi 2.57, p. 387. Denizens of hell are bound by hate, Hungry ghosts by misery, And beasts by blindness. Men by lust are bound, By jealousy, asuras, And the devas in heaven by pride. These Six Fetters are the obstacles to liberation. Buddhism. Milarepa Bound by the fetters of the fruits of good and evil, like a cripple; without freedom, like a man in prison... thus they call him. Hinduism. Maitri Upanishad 4.2 The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately corrupt; who can understand it? Judaism and Christianity, Bible, Jeremiah 17.9 Mencius said, "Slight is the difference between man and the brutes. The common man loses this distinguishing feature, while the gentleman retains it." Confucianism. Mencius IV.B.19 By doing evil the self becomes a rogue, an animal, or inhabitant of hell; and always beset by thousands of pains, it strays incessantly. Jainism. Kundakunda, Pravacanasara 1.12 Having attained human birth, which is an open gateway to Brahman, one who... remains attached to the ties of the world is not fit to be called human. Pleasures of sense may be had in all lives: leave them, then, to the brutes! Hinduism. Srimad Bhagavatam 11.3 That man in whom there never kindles One spark of the love of God, Know, Nanak, that his earthly vesture Is no better than that of a swine or dog! Sikhism. Adi Granth, Slok, M.9, p. 1428 Milarepa: Cf. Dhammapada 345-46, p. 418; Digha Nikaya ii.276, p. 390; Udana 75-76, p. 417; Sutta Nipata 948, p. 531. Maitri Upanishad 4.2: Cf. Maitri Upanishad 3.2, p. 412; Bhagavad Gita 3.36-37, p. 417; Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.8, p. 530. Pravacanasara 1.12: Cf. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10, p. 408. Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth, for the Lord has spoken: "Sons I have reared and brought up, but they have rebelled against me. The ox knows its owner, and the ass its master's crib; but Israel does not know, my people does not understand." Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 1.2-3 And recite to them the tiding of him to whom We gave Our signs, but he cast them off, and Satan followed after him, and he became one of the perverts. And had We willed, We would have raised him up, but he inclined towards the earth and followed his lust. So the likeness of him is as the likeness of a dog; if you attack it it lolls its tongue out, or if you leave it it lolls its tongue out. That is that people's likeness who cried lies to Our signs. So relate the story; haply they will reflect.... We have created for hell many jinn and men; they have hearts, but understand not with them; they have eyes, but perceive not with them; they have ears, but they hear not with them. They are like cattle; nay, rather they are further astray. Those--they are the heedless. Islam. Qur'an 7.175-79 If man does worthily, they [i.e., God] say to him, "You were created before the angels of the service"; if he does not, they say to him, "The fly, the gnat, and the worm were created before you." Judaism. Midrash, Genesis Rabbah Greed and evil are king and minister, falsehood their officer; Lust the counsellor who is called for advice--all three hold conclave to chalk out plans. The subjects, bereft of understanding, are carcasses full of straw. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Asa-ki-Var, M.1, p. 468-69 Isaiah 1.2-3: Cf. Exodus Rabbah 31.15, p. 177. Asa-ki-Var, M.1: Cf. Sorath, M.3, p. 390; Luke 9.60, p. 583; Berakot 18ab, p. 583; Maitri Upanishad 6.28, p. 1054. Demonic PowersThe scriptures of all religions testify to demonic beings and powers. Some regard them as real and rival powers to God (Dualism); others consider them to be a manifestation of ignorance and ultimately unreal (Monism). They testify that at their head is a chief, known by various names: Satan, Beelzebul, Lucifer, Iblis, Mara, Angra Mainyu, among others. We have already met some of them in the various accounts of the human fall and the origin of evil. But the demonic powers are continually active, drawing people's hearts to do wickedness. While rationalists have difficulty accepting the reality of the Devil, merely looking at the horrors of the twentieth century causes one to realize that the capability of human beings to inflict evil on one another transcends the realm of reason. Scriptures teach that when a person has the desire to do a small evil, the devil has a claim and may influence him to do something far worse. Conversely, many people on the religious path experience the temptations of the devil precisely at the point when they are about to make great progress in their path.We begin with descriptions of the Evil One from the texts of many religions. Some emphasize the devil's power, some his enmity to God, and some his wrong teachings. Some identify him with death and disease, others with lusts and selfish desires. We then include two passages, one from Zoroastrianism and one from Native American religions, which describe a dualism in which the Evil One creates all evil in the world to counter God's good creation. However, for the monotheistic faiths that emphasize the goodness of God's creation, the demons themselves are resultant beings who must have fallen from being good creations of God. Thus, the following group of passages in this section portray the fall of the angels. A fourth selection of passages treats the theme of the devil's disguises as a being of light, and next come two passages on the devil's positive role to test and prove the faith of human beings. Finally, we give texts on the devil's temptations and the manner in which people make themselves vulnerable to his influence. The Evil Ruler spoils the Word, the plan of life, by his teachings. He, indeed, deprives me of the exalted goal of Good Thought. With the word of my spirit, I pray to You, O Wise One, and to truth! Zoroastrianism. Avesta, Yasna 32.9 O believers, follow not the steps of Satan; for whoever follows the steps of Satan will assuredly be bid to indecency and dishonor. But for God's bounty to you and His mercy not one of you would have been pure ever; but God purifies whom He will; and God is All-hearing, All-knowing. Islam. Qur'an 24.21 Jesus said to them... "Why do you not understand what I say? It is because you cannot bear to hear my word. You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, it is according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me." Christianity. Bible, John 8.43-45 For we are not contending against flesh and blood, but against the principalities, against the powers, against the world rulers of this present darkness, against the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places. Christianity. Bible, Ephesians 6.12 The foremost of your armies is that of Desire, the second is called Dislike. The third is Hunger-Thirst and the fourth is Craving. The fifth is the army of Lethargy-Laziness and the sixth is Fear. The seventh is Doubt and the eighth is Obstinacy-Restlessness. Then there are Material Gain, Praise, Honor, and Fame... These, O Mara, are your forces, the attackers of the Evil One. One less than a hero will not be victorious over them and attain happiness. Buddhism. Sutta Nipata 436-39 Yasna 32.9: See Videvdad 19.1-7, pp. 622f.; cf. 2 Corinthians 4.4, p. 400. Qur'an 24.21: Cf. Qur'an 4.116-17, p. 405; 4.118-20, p. 454. John 8.43-45: Cf. Matthew 12.22-29, p. 379. Sutta Nipata 436-39: Cf. Buddhacarita 13, pp. 623f. The Essence of Mind or Suchness is the real Buddha, While heretical views and the three poisonous elements [greed, anger delusion] are Mara. Enlightened by right views, we call forth the Buddha within us. When our nature is dominated by the three poisonous elements We are said to be possessed by the devil; But when right views eliminate from our mind these poisonous elements The devil will be transformed into a real Buddha. Buddhism. Sutra of Hui Neng 10 You, trees, hear my words, and you, grass, hear my words, and you, Divinity, hear my words and you, earth, hear my words. Repeat, ee! O Divinity, because of sickness, you help out my tongue. For we have dedicated the ox and invoked over it. And if a man has hated Akol [and his sickness is the result of malice] then that man will find what he deserves.... And you, ox, we have given you to the Power [the illness]. And you fetish-bundles, they say that you kill people. Leave off, you are shamed. You fetish, I have separated you, cease! And you Macardit they say that you kill people, I have separated you, cease! Thus! African Traditional Religions. Dinka Invocation at an Ox Sacrifice (Sudan) Seated on his golden throne, blazing like flame, Ravana resembled a great fire kindled on an altar kept alive by sacrificial offerings. Unconquered by gods, gandharvas, rishis or other creatures, that warrior, who resembled death itself with wide-open jaws, bore on his person the wounds inflicted by the thunderbolts in the war between gods and titans... He, the scourge of the gods, who transgressed every moral law, the ravisher of others' wives, the wielder of celestial weapons, the destroyer of sacrifices, who descended into the city of Bhogavati and subdued the serpent Vasuki, from whom, on his defeat, he stole the gentle consort; he who scaled Mount Kailasha and overcame Kuvera depriving him of his aerial chariot Pushpaka, which transported him wherever he desired; he who in his anger destroyed the garden of Chaitaratha, the lotus pool and the Nandana Grove and all the pleasurable retreats of the gods... proud of his strength, he stole the Soma juice, sanctified by mantras, before its pressing by the twice-born in the sacrifice; this perverse wretch, Ravana of evil deeds, slayer of the brahmins, ruthless, pitiless, delighting in causing harm to others, was verily a source of terror to all beings. Hinduism. Ramayana, Aranya Kanda 32 Sutra of Hui Neng 10: Buddhism traditionally identifies Mara with cravings and delusions, the nature of our own (evil) mind, just as Buddha is within us, a the nature or our own true mind. Cf. Dhammapada 46, p. 328. Dinka Invocation: An ox is being sacrificed in order to propitiate the evil powers that are causing illness in a man named Akol. These evil powers include Macardit, the malign divinity who is for the Dinka the final cause of suffering and death. A fetish is a bundle of medicine imbued with black magic. It is used to gain influence over another person or cause him harm. But if the owner of a fetish neglects it, its magic will come back upon his head. Ramayana, Aranya Kanda 32: Ravana is the chief of the demons, who terrorizes the worlds of gods and humans. Rama, the avatar of Vishnu, appears on earth to defeat him. Cf. Ramayana, Bala Kanda 15, p. 625. Cf. Yasna 30.3-5, p. 388. The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Paradise, by the good river Araxes. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft the serpent in the river and winter, a work of the devils. The second of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the plains in Samarkand. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft the fly Skaitya, which brings death to the cattle. The third of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the strong, holy Merv. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft sinful lusts.... The eighth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Urva of the rich pastures. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft the sin of pride. Zoroastrianism. Videvdad 1.3-11 Many winters in the past, the Earth was entirely covered by a great blanket of water. There was no sun, moon, or stars and so there was no light. All was darkness. At that time, the only living creatures of the earth were water animals such as the beaver, muskrat, duck, and loon. Far above the earth was the Land of Happy Spirits where lived Rawennio, the Great Ruler. In the center of this upper world was a giant apple tree whose roots sank deep into the ground. One day, Rawennio pulled this giant tree up by its roots. The Great Spirit called his daughter, who lived in the Upper World, and commanded her to look into the pit caused by the uprooted tree. This woman, who was to be the mother of the Good and Evil Spirits, came and looked into the hole by the uprooted tree. She saw far below her the Lower World covered with water and surrounded by heavy clouds. "You are to go to this world of darkness," said the Great Spirit. Gently lifting her, he dropped her into the hole. She floated downward.... [The water animals then dive beneath the water to find some dry land for her to land upon; they erect the land on the back of a giant turtle.] After a time, the Sky Woman gave birth to twins. One, who became the Good Spirit, was born first. The other, the Evil Spirit, while being born, caused her mother so much pain that she died during his birth. The Good Spirit immediately took his mother's head and hung it in the sky. It became the sun. From his mother's body he fashioned the moon and stars and placed them in the sky. The rest of his mother's body he buried under the earth. That is why living things find nourishment in the soil. They spring from Mother Earth. The Evil Spirit put darkness in the western sky to drive the sun before it. The Good Spirit created many things which he placed upon the earth. The Evil Spirit tried to undo the work of his brother by creating evil. The Good Spirit made tall and beautiful trees such as the pine and hemlock. The Evil Spirit stunted some trees. In others he put knots and gnarls. He covered some with thorns, and placed poison fruit on them. The Good Spirit made animals such as the dear and the bear. The Evil Spirit made poisonous animals, lizards and serpents to destroy the animals of the Good Spirit's creation. The Good Spirit made springs and streams of good, pure water. The Evil Spirit breathed poison into many of the springs. He put snakes into others. The Good Spirit made beautiful rivers protected by high hills. The Evil Spirit pushed rocks and dirt into the rivers causing the current to become swift and dangerous. Everything that the Good Spirit made, his wicked brother tried to destroy. Finally, when the earth was completed, the Good Spirit fashioned man out of some red clay. He placed man upon the earth, and told him how he should live. The Evil Spirit, not to be outdone, fashioned a creature out of the white foam of the sea. What he made was the monkey. After mankind and the other creatures of the world were created, the Good Spirit bestowed a protecting spirit upon each of his creations. He then called the Evil Spirit, and told him that he must cease making trouble upon the earth. This the Evil Spirit refused to do. The Good Spirit became very angry with his wicked brother and challenged him to combat, the victor to become ruler of the earth. They fought for many days; finally the Evil Spirit was overcome. The Good Spirit now became ruler over the earth. He banished his wicked brother to a dark cave under the earth. There he must always remain. But the Evil Spirit has wicked servants who roam the earth. These wicked spirits can take the shape of any creature that the Evil Spirit desires them to take. They are constantly influencing the minds of men, thus causing men to do evil things. The Good Spirit continues to create and protect mankind. He controls the spirits of good men after death. The Evil Spirit takes charge of the souls of wicked men after death. That is why every person has both a bad heart and a good heart. No matter how good a man seems, he has some evil. No matter how bad a man seems, there is some good about him. No man is perfect. Native American Religions Mohawk tradition How you are fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! How you are cut down to the ground, you who weakened the nations! For you said in your heart, "I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God; I will sit also upon the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north; I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the Most High." Yet you shall be brought down to hell, to the depths of the pit. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 14.12-15 And when We said to the angels, "Bow yourselves to Adam," they bowed themselves, save Iblis; he said, "Shall I bow myself to one whom You have created of clay?" He said, "What do you think? This [creature] You have honored above me, if You defer me until the Day of Resurrection I shall assuredly master his seed, save a few." Said He, "Depart! Those of them that follow you--surely hell shall be your recompense, an ample recompense! And startle any of them whom you can with your voice; and rally against them your horsemen and your foot [soldiers], and share with them in their wealth and their children, and promise them!" But Satan promises them naught, except delusion. Islam. Qur'an 17.61-64 The Lord God spoke to Moses, saying, "That Satan... is the same who was from the beginning, and he came before me, saying, 'Behold, here am I; send me, I will be Thy son, and I will redeem all mankind, that not one soul shall be lost. Surely I will do it; therefore give me my honor.' "But my Beloved Son, who was my Beloved and Chosen from the beginning, said to me, 'Father, Thy will be done, and the glory be Thine forever.' "Therefore, because that Satan rebelled against me, and sought to destroy the agency of man, which I, the Lord God, had given him, and also, that I should give to him my own power; by the power of my Only Begotten [Christ], I caused that he should be cast down; "And he became Satan, yea, even the devil, the father of all lies, to deceive and to blind men, and to lead them captive at his will, even as many as would not hearken unto my voice." Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Pearl of Great Price, Moses 4.1-4 Isaiah 14.12-15: In the Christian tradition these verses are taken to describe the primeval fall of Lucifer and the beginning of sin. Lucifer was the angel of the intellect who was puffed up with willful pride. His ambition was to exceed God. But he was cast down from heaven and became Satan, who would then work his malignant will on humankind. This story of the primeval rebellion of the angels is greatly elaborated in the Book of Enoch. The word 'Lucifer,' which is Latin for 'light-bearer,' was first used in the Vulgate; however most modern Bibles return to the Hebrew and translate 'Morning Star' or 'Day Star.' This passage by the prophet Isaiah is a taunt against the king of Babylon. He makes use of a Canaanite variant of the myth of the rebellious angel, one which identified the angel with the atmospheric phenomenon of the morning star, which shines brightly in the sky until it is quenched by the brightness of the rising sun. Cf. Psalm 82, p. 377. Qur'an 17.61-64: Cf. Qur'an 2.30-33, p. 313; Qur'an 7.11-27, pp. 426f.; Srimad Bhagavatam 11.20, p. 380; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10, p. 405. Pearl of Great Price, Moses 4.1-4: Satan's request to God contained two errors: he wanted to claim all the glory and credit for man's salvation when credit is due only to God, and he would save humanity by compulsion--'not one soul shall be lost,' without regard for man's free agency. Christ, the Beloved Son, correctly offers to God the credit for salvation. God then ordered Christ to cast Satan down to the earth, where he continues to seek to enslave humankind. The gods and the demons, both having the Creator as their origin, were rivals of each other. So the demons, swollen with pride, said, "In what, pray, should we place the oblation?" And they proceeded to place the oblation in their own mouths. The gods then proceeded to place their oblations each in the mouth of one of his fellows. And the Creator gave himself over to them. In this way they became owners of sacrifice, for sacrifice is really the food of the gods. Hinduism. Satapatha Brahmana 5.1.1.1-2 Even Satan disguises himself as an angel of light. Christianity. Bible, 2 Corinthians 11.14 Mara the Evil One will expound to the bodhisattva a counterfeit of the Path. Buddhism. Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom 382 O men, God's promise is true; so let not the present life delude you, and let not the Deluder delude you concerning God. Surely Satan is an enemy to you; so take him for an enemy. He calls his party only that they may be among the inhabitants of the Fire. Islam. Qur'an 35.5-6 When I first heard Buddha preaching the Greater Vehicle, In my heart I was greatly alarmed: "Surely Mara is playing Buddha, Confusing my thoughts!" The Buddha by resort to various means, Parables, and cunning phrases preaches, But his thought is as calm as the sea; When I hear him, my net of doubt is severed... The World-Honored One preaches the Real Path, While Mara has none of this. By this token I know for a certainty That this is no Mara playing Buddha, But that I, through having fallen into a net of doubt, Thought this was the work of Mara. When I hear the Buddha's gentle voice, Profound, far removed from the ordinary understanding, and extremely subtle, Setting forth the pure Dharma, My heart is overjoyed, My doubts and second thoughts are cleared away forever. Buddhism. Lotus Sutra 3 Satapatha Brahmana 5.1.1.1-2: There are two orders of spiritual beings: gods and demons; cf. Bhagavad Gita 16.6, p. 388; Vishnu Purana 3.17-18, p. 448. The chief difference between demons and gods is that the demons are self-centered while the gods are generous and share with others. 2 Corinthians 11.14: Cf. 1 John 4.1, p. 380; Srimad Bhagavatam 11.20, p. 380; Sun Myung Moon, 1-1-68, p. 830. Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom 382: Cf. Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines 17.2, p. 447. Qur'an 35.5-6: Cf. Qur'an 22.52-53, p. 621. The Maras who play the devil in the innumerable universes of the ten directions are all bodhisattvas dwelling in the inconceivable liberation, who are playing the devil in order to develop living beings through their skill in liberative technique. Those miserable beggars who come to the bodhisattvas to ask for a hand, a foot, an ear, a nose... a kingdom, a wife, a son, gold, silver, jewels... these demanding beggars are usually bodhisattvas living in the inconceivable liberation who, through their skill in liberative technique, wish to test and thus demonstrate the firmness of the high resolve of the bodhi- sattvas. Why? Bodhisattvas must demonstrate that firmness by means of terrible austerities. Buddhism. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 6 Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan also came among them. The Lord said to Satan, "Whence have you come?" Satan answered the Lord, "From going to and fro on the earth, and from walking up and down on it." And the Lord said to Satan, "Have you considered my servant Job, that there is none like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man, who fears God and turns away from evil?" Then Satan answered the Lord, "Does Job fear God for naught? Hast thou not put a hedge about him and his house and all that he has, on every side? Thou hast blessed the work of his hands, and his possessions have increased in the land. But put forth Thy hand now, and touch all that he has, and he will curse Thee to thy face." And the Lord said to Satan, "Behold, all that he has is in your power." Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Job 1.6-12 Lotus Sutra 3: The 'Greater Vehicle' is the teaching of the Lotus Sutra, the doctrine of the One Vehicle. Shariputra's initial doubts were due to the novelty of the Sutra's teaching, which set forth a single path embracing and transcending the three vehicles of shravaka, pratyekabuddha and bodhisattva. For a story where Mara in fact comes in disguise to give a false teaching, see Samyutta Nikaya v.2, pp. 383f. On discerning the spirit, cf. 1 John 4.1, p. 380. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti 6: This passage explains that the Maras and other temptations are not to be seen as fundamentally evil, but should rather be appreciated as offering trials and lessons to humans on the path to enlightenment. They may even be liberated bodhisattvas disguised as Maras as an expedient device (upaya) for the purpose of guiding and educating living beings. According to Udana 21-24, pp. 1022f., even the Buddha once tempted his disciple Nanda with visions of heavenly damsels in order to spur him to enlightenment. For another instance of a bodhisattva's deception, see Mahaparinirvana Sutra 424-33, pp. 753f. On the unreality of evil, cf. Nectarean Shower of Holy Doctrines, p. 402; Science and Health, 480, p. 402. Be sober, be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking some one to devour. Christianity. Bible, 1 Peter 5.8 One of the nights [when I "lamented"] the bad spirits came and started tearing the offerings off the poles; and I heard their voices under the ground, and one of them said, "Go and see if he is crying." And I heard rattles, but all the time they were outside the sacred place and could not get in, for I had resolved not to be afraid, and did not stop sending my voice to Wakan-Tanka for aid. Native American Religions. Black Elk (Sioux) When a man grasps at things, Mara stands beside him. Buddhism. Sutta Nipata 1103 The Lord said to Cain, "Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen? If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is couching at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it." Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Genesis 4.6-7 The Messenger of God said, "There is none among you with whom is not an attache from among the jinn (evil spirits)." The Companions said, "With you, too?" He said, "Yes, but God helps me against him and so I am safe from his hand." Islam. Hadith of Muslim And Satan says, when the issue is decided, "God surely promised you a true promise; I also promised you, then I failed you, for I had no authority over you, but that I called you, and you answered me. So do not blame me, blame yourselves." Islam. Qur'an 14.22 "We do not do all the evil that we do because of our own desire," said the Rakshasa. "It is because of your evil karma, and your disfavor toward us. Our faction increases because of the brahmins who behave like Rakshasas and the evil actions of the other three classes. Those who dishonor brahmins become Rakshasas, and their ranks are swelled by the sexual sins of evil women." Hinduism. Vamana Purana Saromahatmyam 19.31-35 Job 1.6-12: In Job, as in the previous Buddhist passage, the devil is not fundamentally evil and opposed to God, but is rather the one whom God allows to test Job's integrity. In proving Job, Satan is serving a divine purpose. For more of this story, and Job's legendary patience, see Job 1.13-22, p. 747; 2.9-10, pp. 707f. God often tries people through confronting them with evils; cf. 2 Corinthians 12.7-10, p. 573, on Paul's thorn; Genesis Rabbah 56, pp. 621f. on the temptation of Abraham; and Qur'an 21.35, p. 571. 1 Peter 5.8: Cf. Sun Myung Moon, 1-1-68, p. 830. Genesis 4.6-7: Cf. Mahabharata, p. 391. Hadith of Muslim: Cf. Qur'an 114, p. 56. Qur'an 14.22: Cf. Qur'an 5.105, p. 678. Whoever lives contemplating pleasant things, with senses unrestrained, in food immoderate, indolent, inactive, him verily Mara overthrows, as the wind blows down a weak tree. Whoever lives contemplating the impurities of the body, with senses restrained, in food moderate, full of faith, full of sustained energy, him Mara overthrows not, as the wind cannot shake a rocky mountain. Buddhism. Dhammapada 7-8 Shall I inform you on whom it is that the devils descend? They descend on every lying, wicked person, into whose ears they pour hearsay vanities, and most of them are liars. And the Poets--it is those straying in Evil, who follow them: do you not see them wandering distracted in every valley? They preach what they never practice. Islam. Qur'an 26.221-26 Endowed with two dharmas does the Bodhisattva become one hard to assail by the evil Maras: he surveys all phenomena from emptiness, and does not abandon any being. Endowed with two other dharmas does the Bodhisattva become one hard to assail by the evil Maras: as he speaks so he acts, and he is brought to mind by the Buddhas, the Lords. Buddhism. Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom 431 Detachment From The SensesThe passions and cravings of the flesh often arise from the perceptions of the senses. Therefore, subduing desire begins by cultivating an attitude of detachment towards sense perceptions, by regarding them as impermanent, transient, and of no account. This teaching is stressed in the Bhagavad Gita and in Buddhist scriptures. Related is the injunction by Jesus that "if your right eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away," which is illustrated by the story of the Buddhist nun Subha.Just as one does not touch a sensuous woman entering an empty house, so is he who does not touch the sense objects that have entered into him, a renouncer, an ascetic, a self-sacrificer. Hinduism. Maitri Upanishad 6.10 All bodhisattvas, lesser and great, should develop a pure, lucid mind, not depending upon sound, flavor, touch, odor, or any quality. A bodhisattva should develop a mind which alights upon no thing whatsoever; and so should he establish it. Buddhism. Diamond Sutra 10 When the senses contact sense objects, a person experiences cold or heat, pleasure or pain. These experiences are fleeting; they come and go. Bear them patiently, Arjuna. Those who are not affected by these changes, who are the same in pleasure and pain, are truly wise and fit for immortality. Assert your strength and realize this!... The disunited mind is far from wise; how can it meditate? How can it be at peace? When you know no peace, how can you know joy? When you let your mind follow the call of the senses, they carry away your better judgement as storms drive a boat off its charted course on the sea. Use all of your power to free the senses from attachment and aversion alike, and live in the full wisdom of the Self. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 2.14-15, 66-68 Monks, there are these three feelings. What three? Pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant. Pleasant feeling, monks, should be looked upon as pain, painful feeling should be looked upon as a barb, feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant should be looked upon as impermanent. When these three feelings are looked upon in these ways by a monk, that monk is called "rightly seeing." Buddhism. Itivuttaka 47 The five colors make man's eyes blind; The five notes make his hears deaf; The five flavors injure his palate; Riding and hunting make his mind go mad. Goods hard to come by serve to hinder his progress. Hence the sage is for the belly and not the eye. Therefore he discards the one and takes the other. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 12 If your right eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away; it is better that you lose one of your members than that your whole body be thrown into hell. And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away; it is better that you lose one of your members than that your whole body go into hell. Christianity. Matthew 5.29-30 In Jivaka's pleasant wood walked Subh-a the bhikkuni. A gallant met her there and barred the way. Subh-a said this to him, "What have I done to offend you, that you stand obstructing me? For it is not fitting, sir, that a man should touch a sister in orders. This has my Master ordained in the precepts we honor and follow. So has the Welcome One taught in the training wherein they have trained me to be purified, disciplined, holy. Why do you stand blocking my pathway? I am pure; you impure of heart; I am passionless, you of vile passions; I am wholly freed in spirit and blameless. Why do you obnoxiously stand obstructing me?" "You are young, maiden, and faultless--what do you seek in the holy life? Cast off that yellow robe and come! In the blossoming woodland let us seek our pleasure. Filled with the incense of blossoms, the trees waft sweetness. See, the spring is at the prime, the season of happiness. Come with me then to the flowering woodland, and let us seek our pleasure.... "Dearer and sweeter to me than are you is no creature on earth, you with languid and slow-moving eyes of an elf in the forest. If you will do my bidding, come where the joys of the sheltered life await you; dwell in a house of verandas and terraces, with handmaidens serving you. Robe yourself with delicate garments, don garlands, use unguents. I will give you many and varied ornaments, fashioned with precious stones, gold work, and pearls. You will mount on a couch fair and sumptuous, carved in sandalwood, fragrant with essences, spread with new pillows, coverlets fleecy and soft..." "What so infatuates you about this carcass, filled with carrion, to fill a grave, so fragile, that it seems to warrant such words?" "Eyes you have like a gazelle's, like an elf's in the heart of the mountains--'tis those eyes of yours, sight of which feeds the depth of my passion. Shrined in your dazzling, immaculate face as in the calyx of a lotus, 'tis those eye of yours, sight of which feeds the strength of my passion. Though you be far from me, how could I ever forget you, O maiden, you of long-drawn eyelashes, you of eyes so miraculous?..." "O you are blind! You chase a sham, deluded by puppet shows seen in the midst of the crowd; you deem of value and genuine conjurer's trick- work.... What is this eye but a little ball lodged in the fork of a hollow tree, bubble of film, anointed with tear-brine, exuding slime- drops, compost wrought in the shape of an eye of manifold aspects?" Forthwith the maiden so lovely tore out her eye and gave it to him. "Here, then! Take your eye!" Her heart unattached, she sinned not. Straightaway the lust in him ceased and he begged her pardon. "O pure and holy maid, would that you might recover your sight! Never again will I do such a thing. You have sore smitten my sin; blazing flames have I clasped to my bosom; a poisonous snake I have handled--but O, be healed and forgive me!" Freed from molesting, the bhikkuni went on her way to the Buddha, chief of the Awakened. There in his presence, seeing those features born of utmost merit, her eye was restored. Buddhism. Therigatha 366-99, Subha Jivakambavanika Diamond Sutra 10: Cf. Chuang Tzu 7, p. 728. Itivuttaka 47: Cf. Dhammapada 212-14, p. 927. Tao Te Ching 12: Waley interprets this passage as a criticism of attachment to the senses; 'the belly' is man's inner power, or ch'i, which should be cultivated through meditation while ignoring distractions of the senses. Others interpret the passage in a political sense: the extravagances of the court, pleasing to the eye, ear, and palate, should be rejected in favor of providing ample food for the people, 'the belly.' Matthew 5.29-30: Cf. Majjhima Nikaya i.142-45, p. 929. Therigatha 366-99: Cf. Akkamahadevi, Vachana 15 and 33, p. 931; Precious Garland 149-57, p. 930; Sutta Nipata 205-06, p. 914. Devotion And PraiseDevotion to God is the love for God that expresses itself in joyful and emotional outpourings of praise and worship and a constant longing for God's sweet presence. This powerful mode of religious consciousness is particularly manifest in the bhakti tradition of Hinduism and Sikhism, in the dancing and songs of Sufi Muslims and Hassidic Jews, and in pietistic movements throughout the history of Christianity. Many of these passages describe this mystical emotion as a transformed and sublime love of a bride for her beloved, as in the Song of Solomon in the Bible, in the love poetry of the Adi Granth, and in the amorous episodes of Krishna and the cowherd girls in the Srimad Bhagavatam. Other passages express devotion to God in songs and psalms of praise.Whatever you do, do all to the glory of God. Christianity. Bible, 1 Corinthians 10.31 The supreme Lord who pervades all existence, the true Self of all creatures, may be realized through undivided love. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 8.22 Heaven and earth contain me not, but the heart of my faithful servant contains me. Islam. Hadith of Suhrawardi He is the Living One; there is no god but He: call upon Him, giving Him sincere devotion. Praise be to God, Lord of the Worlds! Islam. Qur'an 40.65 "And you shall love the Lord"--namely, you shall make the Lord beloved. Judaism. Talmud, Yoma 86 Yoma 86: Quoting Deuteronomy 6.5, p. 723. Those who remember the Lord with every breath, each morsel, And in whose mind ever abides the spell of the Lord's Name-- Says Nanak, are blessed, perfect devotees. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Var Gauri, M.5, p. 319 Lord! In praying to you I violate the restraint of tongue, in remembering you I violate the restraint of mind, and in prostrating to you I violate the restraint of body. Be it as it may, I vow to ever pray to you, remember you, and prostrate myself before you. Jainism. Jinasena, Adipurana 76.2 Greater is he who acts from love than he who acts from fear. Judaism. Talmud, Sota 31a The path to the Unmanifest is very difficult for embodied souls to realize [by effort at meditation]. But quickly I come to those who offer me every action, who worship me only, their dearest delight, with undaunted devotion. Because they love me, these are my bondsmen, and I shall save them from mortal sorrow and all the waves of life's deathly ocean. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 12.5-7 He who loves me is made pure; his heart melts in joy. He rises to transcendental consciousness by the rousing of his higher emotional nature. Tears of joy flow from his eyes, his hair stands on end, his heart melts in love. The bliss in that state is so intense that, forgetful of himself and his surroundings, he sometimes weeps profusely, or laughs, or sings, or dances; such a devotee is a purifying influence upon the whole universe. Hinduism. Srimad Bhagavatam 11.8 Holy is the man of devotion; Through thoughts and words and deed And through his conscience he increases Righteousness; The Wise Lord as Good Mind gives the dominion. For this good reward I pray. I know that my greatest good is to worship The Wise Lord and those that have been and are. By their names will I worship them And come before them with praise. Zoroastrianism. Avesta, Yasna 50.21-22 Be wakeful, for the longing of the righteous to see Me has increased, and verily My longing towards them has increased more. Islam. Hadith As a hart longs for flowing streams, so longs my soul for thee, O God. My soul thirsts for God, for the living God. When shall I come and behold the face of God? My tears have been my food day and night. Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 42.1-3 The Chakora bird longs for the moonlight, The lotus longs for sunrise, The bee longs to drink the flower's nectar, Even so my heart anxiously longs for thee, O Lord. Hinduism. Basavanna, Vachana 364 My beloved speaks and says to me, "Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away; for lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone. The flowers appear on the earth; the time of singing has come, and the voice of the turtledove is heard in our land. The fig tree puts forth its figs, and the vines are in blossom; they give forth fragrance. Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away." Judaism and Christianity. Song of Solomon 2.10-13 Sota 31a: Compare 1 John 4.18, p. 237. Bhagavad Gita 12.5-7: Cf. Bhagavad Gita 18.65-66, p. 644; Srimad Bhagavatam 6.1, p. 909; Japuji 20, M.1, p. 727; Gauri Purabi, Ravi Das, p. 401. Srimad Bhagavatam 11.8: Cf. Chandogya Upanishad 7.23, p. 198; Sun Myung Moon, 10-20-73, p. 197. Yasna 50.21-22: The translation of this Gatha portrays an historical conception of the religion of Zarathustra which may differ from the monotheism of modern Parsees: it appears to have been a henotheism in which the Wise Lord Ahura Mazda is served by subordinate divine entities. Hadith: Cf. Qur'an 11.93, p. 740; Song of Solomon 5.2 , p. 740. Song of Solomon 2.10-13: This book is also called Canticles or Song of Songs. Scholars regard it as originally a collection of some twenty-five songs of love and courtship such as might be sung at weddings. Despite its secular origins, this book has been prized by mystics as lyrically portraying the intimate experience of divine love for the individual soul. Christians have taken it as an allegory of Christ's love for the church, his Bride: see Ephesians 5.21-33, p. 261; Revelation 21.2, pp. 1118f. In the Jewish tradition it describes God's love for Israel: see Canticles Rabbah 2.5, below; Canticles Rabbah 4.4.3, p. 919; Exodus Rabbah, p. 286. How may I live, Mother, without the Lord? Glory to Thee, Lord of the Universe! To praise Thee I seek; Never without the Lord may I live. The Bride is athirst for the Lord; All night is she awake lying in wait for Him. The Lord has captured my heart; He alone knows my agony: Without the Lord the soul is in travail and pain-- Seeking His Word and the touch of His feet. Show Thy grace, Lord; immerse me in Thyself. Sikhism. Adi Granth, Sarang, M.1, p. 1232 My heart is joy-filled, blossoming with love; Ravished am I by His love-- Love of my eternal Lord. He is the immortal Lord Supreme, Whose will nothing restrains; Gracious, compassionate, In each one's life involved. He is my sole knowledge, object of meditation, adoration, His name in my soul lodged: Neither ritual garb nor wandering nor austere yoga Know I to win Him over: Nanak, true devotion alone conquers His love. Agreeable is the cool night, followed by happy day; Thou who art asleep in thy own ego, the Beloved calls thee. Awakened is the youthful bride to the Lover's call, In aspect pleasing to Him. Thou youthful bride! discard falsehood, deceit, Maya-absorption, concern with the world. Round my neck I wear the pearl-string of His Name, The jewel string of His holy Word. With hands folded Nanak makes supplication: Show Thy grace, take me into Thy favor! Sikhism. Adi Granth, Bilaval Chhant, M.1, p. 843-44 Upon my bed by night I sought him whom my soul loves; I sought him, but found him not; I called him, but he gave no answer. "I will rise now and go about the city, in the streets and in the squares; I will seek him whom my soul loves." I sought him, but found him not. The watchmen found me, as they went about the city. "Have you seen him whom my soul loves?" Sarang, M.1: Cf. Rig Veda 1.164.49, p. 146. Scarcely had I passed them, when I found him whom my soul loves. I held him, and would not let him go until I had brought him into my mother's house, and into the chamber of her that conceived me. I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles or the hinds of the field, that you not stir up or awaken love until it please. Judaism and Christianity. Song of Solomon 3.1-5 "For I am love-sick" [Song of Solomon 2.5]. Said the community of Israel before the Holy One, "Sovereign of the Universe, all the maladies which Thou bringest upon me are to make me more beloved of Thee." Another explanation: The community of Israel said before the Holy One, "Sovereign of the Universe, the reason for all the sufferings which the nations inflict upon me is because I love Thee." Another explanation: "Although I am sick [i.e. sinful], I am beloved of Him." Judaism. Midrash, Canticles Rabbah 2.5 To the shepherd girls, Krishna was their beloved friend, lover, and companion. When Sri Krishna played on his flute, the shepherd girls forgot everything; unconscious even of their own bodies, they ran to him, drawn by his great love. Once Krishna, to test their devotion to him, said to them, "O you pure ones, your duties must be first to your husbands and children. Go back to your homes and live in their service. You need not come to me. For if you only meditate on me, you will gain salvation." But the shepherd girls replied, "O thou cruel lover, we desire to serve only thee! Thou knowest the scriptural truths, and dost advise us to serve our husbands and children. Very well; we shall abide by thy teaching. Since thou art all in all, and art all, by serving thee we shall be serving them also." Krishna, who gives delight to all and who is blissful in his own being, divided himself into as many Krishnas as there were shepherd girls, and danced and played with them. Each girl felt the divine presence and divine love of Sri Krishna. Each felt herself the most blessed. Each one's love for Krishna was so absorbing that she felt herself one with Krishna--nay, knew herself to be Krishna. Truly has it been said that those who meditate on the divine love of Sri Krishna, and upon the sweet relationship between him and the shepherd girls, become free from lust and sensuality. Hinduism. Srimad Bhagavatam 10.5 Song of Solomon 3.1-5: Cf. Book of Songs, Ode 1, p. 255; note to Song of Solomon 2.10-13, above. Canticles Rabbah 2.5: The first interpretation speaks of how suffering is for the purpose of love, bringing Israel nearer to God; see Menahot 53b, p. 571. The second interpretation refers to the fact that those who love God naturally attract persecution from the fallen world; cf. Matthew 15:11-12, p. 879; Berakot 61b, p. 881; Gittin 57b, p. 886; Hebrews 11, pp. 754f. On the third interpretation, cf. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 42, p. 523; 2 Timothy 2:13, p. 507. Srimad Bhagavatam 10.5: Cf. Srimad Bhagavatam 10.34, p. 658; 10.16, pp. 626f. O Rama... I wish to be with thee! I shall experience no fatigue in following thee, even if I may no longer rest near thee on a luxurious couch. The kusha grass, the reeds, the rushes and thorny briars on the way, in thy company, will seem as soft as lawns or antelope skins! The dust raised by the tempest that covers me will resemble rare sandalwood paste, O my dear Lord. When, in the dense forest, I sleep beside thee on a grassy couch, soft as a woollen coverlet, what could be more pleasant to me? Leaves, roots, fruits, whatever it may be, little or much, that thou hast gathered with thine own hand to give to me, will taste of amrita!... To be with thee is heaven, to be without thee is hell, this is the truth! Hinduism. Ramayana, Ayodhya Kanda 30 Now when Jesus was at Bethany in the house of Simon the leper, as he sat at table, a woman came with an alabaster flask of ointment of pure nard, very costly, and she broke the flask and poured it over his head. But there were some who said to themselves indignantly, "Why was the ointment thus wasted? For this ointment might have been sold for more than three hundred denarii, and given to the poor." And they reproached her. But Jesus said, "Let her alone; why do you trouble her? She has done a beautiful thing to me. For you always have the poor with you, and whenever you will, you can do good to them; but you will not always have me. She has done what she could; she has anointed my body beforehand for burying. And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her." Christianity. Mark 14.3-9 Once, while Yasoda was holding the baby Krishna on her lap, she set him down suddenly to attend to some milk that was boiling over on the oven. At this the child was much vexed. In his anger he broke a pot containing curdled milk, went to a dark corner of the room taking some cheese with him, smeared it over his face, and began feeding a monkey with the crumbs. When his mother returned and saw him, she scolded him. As a punishment, she decided to tie him with a rope to a wooden mortar. But to her surprise the rope, although long enough, seemed too short. She took more rope, but still it was too short. Then she used all the ropes she could find, but still Krishna could not be tied. This greatly mystified Yasoda. Krishna smiled within himself, but now, seeing that his mother was completely tired out and perplexed, he gently allowed himself to be bound. He who has neither beginning, nor middle, nor end, who is all-pervading, infinite, and omnipotent, allowed himself to be bound by Yasoda only because of her great love. He is the Lord omnipotent, the Lord of all beings, the controller of all; yet he permits himself to be controlled by those who love him. Hinduism. Srimad Bhagavatam 10.3 Ramayana: Sita expresses her undying love for Rama. Since Rama is God incarnate, Sita's devotion is representative of every true devotee of the Lord. See Ramayana, Sundara Kanda 19-22, pp. 884f. Srimad Bhagavatam 10.3: The last line from this account of an episode from the life of Krishna expresses an important truth: love is the one power which can control even the Almighty God. Sing you all, and sing aloud! Devotees, sing your songs. Let children, too, sing. Sing to him who is like a mighty fortress. Let the viol send down its strains, the lute raise its voice around, the bow string strike its echoing sound: to Indra is our hymn upraised. Hinduism. Rig Veda 8.69.8-9 Praise the Lord! Praise God in his sanctuary; praise him in his mighty firmament! Praise him for his mighty deeds; praise him according to his exceeding greatness! Praise him with trumpet sound; praise him with lute and harp! Praise him with timbrel and dance; praise him with strings and pipe! Praise him with sounding cymbals; praise him with loud clashing cymbals! Let everything that breathes praise the Lord! Praise the Lord! Judaism and Christianity. Psalm 150 Come together, you all, with the power of spirit, to the Lord of heaven, who is One, the Guest of the people. He, the ancient, desires to come to the new. To him all pathways turn; verily he is One. We all here are thine, O Indra, praised by many, We who go about, attached to thee, Lord of wealth! O Lover of song, none but thee receives our songs. Love these our words as the earth loves her creatures. Loud songs have sounded to the bounteous Indra, One worthy of praise, the Supporter of mankind, to the much invoked, waxing strong with lovely hymns, and the immortal One who is sung day by day. Towards Indra have all our loving songs, joined to the heavenly light, proceeded in unison; as a wife embraces her husband, comely bridegroom, so they encompass the bounteous One for his grace. Hinduism. Sama Veda 372-375 Rig Veda 8.69.8-9: Cf. Ramkali Anandu, M.3, p. 201. Psalm 150: Cf. Psalm 100, p. 202. Divine Father And MotherDivine love and compassion is often expressed by the relationship of parent and child. The Jewish and Christian scriptures call God our Heavenly Father; in the Lotus Sutra the Buddha is called Father of the World; and similar statements are found in the Vedas and the Confucian classics. In many religious traditions Ultimate Reality is also recognized to be our divine Mother. Often God's Fatherhood and Motherhood are identified with Heaven and Earth, which cooperate in the creation and nurturing of human kind and the universe.We may recognize from these scriptures that Ultimate Reality has the attributes of both Father and Mother. Even religions that restrict the vision of God to a patriarchal image only, or religions like Islam that avoid using the language of parenthood altogether, describe God's love in terms that can be said to encompass both fatherly love--Creator, Teacher, Guide, and Savior--and motherly love--Nurturer, Fount of compassion, and Sustainer.1 Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Christianity. Bible, Matthew 6.9 God! Give us wisdom as a father gives to his sons. Guide us, O Much-invoked, in this path. May we live in light. Hinduism. Rig Veda 7.32.26 I tell you, Shariputra, I, too, am like this, Being the Most Venerable among many saints, The Father of the World.... I tell you, Shariputra, You men Are all my children, And I am your Father. For age upon age, you Have been scorched by multitudinous woes, And I have saved you all. Buddhism. Lotus Sutra 3 1 Islam's reticence about describing God as Father may be understood in light of its strong rejection of polytheistic religions in which gods beget other gods. Any language which could be suggestive of divine procreation--and the notion of a heavenly father could be misinterpreted to give such a mistaken idea--is avoided in the Qur'an. Do you thus requite the Lord, you foolish and senseless people? Is not he your father, who created you, who made you and established you? He found [Israel] in a desert land, in the howling waste of the wilderness; He encircled him, he cared for him, he kept him as the apple of his eye. Like an eagle that stirs up its nest, that flutters over its young, Spreading out its wings, catching them, bearing them on its pinions, The Lord alone did lead him, and there was no foreign god with him. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Deuteronomy 32.6, 10-12 You are the children of the Lord your God. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Deuteronomy 14.1 For all who are led by the spirit of God are sons of God. For you did not receive the spirit of slavery to fall back into fear, but you have received the spirit of sonship. When we cry, "Abba! Father!" it is the Spirit himself bearing witness that we are the children of God, and if children, then heirs, heirs of God and fellow heirs with Christ, provided that we suffer with him in order that we may also be glorified with him. Christianity. Bible, Romans 8.14-17 Lotus Sutra 3: This stanza follows the Parable of the Burning House, in which the Buddha, as a compassionate father, rescues his children from the burning house of mundane existence by various means. The image of existence as burning goes back to the Buddha himself; cf. the Fire Sermon, p. 382. The Buddha is our parent by virtue of his limitless compassion--see Mahaparinirvana Sutra 259, p. 138. Deuteronomy 14.1: Some Christians stereotype Judaism as a religion in which man relates to God as a servant to his master, whereas the revelation of Christ opened for the first time the more intimate relationship of a child to his Heavenly Father. This is the negative side of Paul's joyous experience of sonship in Romans 8.14-17. Yet Judaism in its true expression also seeks the intimacy of a parent-child relationship. God already revealed his abiding fatherly love for his people in the Torah of the Jews, in such passages as Isaiah 1.2, 63.16, 64.8 and Jeremiah 3.19; cf. the Kaddish, p. 54. Anas and 'Abdullah reported God's Messenger as saying, "All [human] creatures are God's children, and those dearest to God are those who treat His children kindly." Islam. Hadith of Baihaqi God Himself told me that the most basic and central truth of the universe is that God is the Father and we are His children. We are all created as children of God. And He said there is nothing closer, nothing deeper, nothing more ultimate than when father and son are one: One in love, one in life, and one in ideal. Unification Church Sun Myung Moon, 10-20-73 Why did God create the universe? The reason is that God wants to realize the relationship of Father and children centering on love. So we can come to the conclusion that the foundation of the universe is the relationship of Father and children. Unification Church. Sun Myung Moon, 6-20-82 We are the children of our Maker And do not fear that he will kill us. We are the children of God And do not fear that he will kill. African Traditional Religions. Dinka Prayer (Sudan) What father among you, if his son asks for a fish, will instead of a fish give him a serpent; or if he asks for an egg, will give him a scorpion? If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him! Christianity. Bible, Luke 11.11-13 That breast of Thine which is inexhaustible, health-giving, by which Thou nursest all that is noble, containing treasure, bearing wealth, bestowed freely; lay that bare, Sarasvati [divine Mother], for our nurture. Hinduism. Rig Veda 1.164.49 Sun Myung Moon, 10-20-73: Our relationship with God includes the dimension of empathy with the divine heart. It should mirror--in its intimacy and through comparable ethical norms--the natural relation of a child to his or her parent. Sun Myung Moon, 6-20-82: Cf. Sun Myung Moon, 2-12-61, p. 117n. Dinka Prayer: Cf. Tiv Proverb, p. 559. Rig Veda 1.164.49: Cf. Candi-Mahatmya 10, p. 565; Sarang, M.1, p. 763. On earth as the divine Mother, see Atharva Veda 12.1, pp. 296f. As one whom his mother comforts, so will I comfort you; You shall be comforted in Jerusalem. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 66.13 The Valley Spirit never dies. It is named the Mysterious Female. And the Doorway of the Mysterious Female Is the base from which sprang Heaven and Earth. It is there within us all the while; Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry. Taoism. Tao Te Ching 6 O Mother of Imupa, advocate for the whole [feminine] world! What a remarkable Mother I have! O Mother, a pillar, a refuge! O Mother, to whom all prostrate in greeting Before one enters her habitation! I am justly proud of my Mother. O Mother who arrives, Who arrives majestic and offers water to all! African Traditional Religions. Yoruba Prayer (Nigeria) I am Father and Mother of the world. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 9.17 Thou art Father, Mother, Friend, Brother. With Thee as succorer in all places, what fear have I? Sikhism. Adi Granth, Majh M.5, p. 103 Love, the divine Principle, is the Father and Mother of the universe, including man. Christian Science. Science and Health, p. 256 Isaiah 66.13: This is one of the many images of the feminine and motherly aspect of God found in the Bible; cf. Hosea 11.1-9, pp. 460f. Tao Te Ching 6: Cf. Tao Te Ching 20, p. 608. Yoruba Prayer: On God worshipped as Father in African traditional religions, we have texts from a Nuer Prayer, p. 54; a Susu Prayer, p. 209, and a Kikuya Prayer, p. 779. For God, people of the whole world are all My children. All of you equally must understand that I am your Parent. Tenrikyo. Ofudesaki IV.79 Heaven and Earth are the father and mother of the ten thousand things. Men are the sensibility of the ten thousand things. Confucianism. Book of History 5.1.1: The Great Declaration All ye under the heaven! Regard heaven as your father, earth as your mother, and all things as your brothers and sisters. Shinto. Oracle of the Kami of Atsuta Mother Earth have pity on us and give us food to eat! Father, the Sun, bless all our children and may our paths be straight! Native American Religions. Blackfoot Prayer The Great Principle, the Divine, is my womb; I cast the seed into it; There is the origin of all creatures. Whatever forms originate in any wombs The real womb is the Divine, the Great Principle. I am the Father that gives the seed. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 14.4 Book of History 5.1.1: The complete passage (see p. 1067) states that the ruler is likewise father and mother to the people. Oracle of the Kami of Atsuta: This notion that people are tied together with the kami and things of nature in one universal family builds a sense of community and respect for nature. Atsuta is a shrine near Nagoya. Blackfoot Prayer: Cf. Cheyenne Song, p. 294; Cree Round Dance Song, p. 55, and Okanagan Creation, p. 298. For a comparable Hindu passage, see Rig Veda 1.185.1-5, p. 177 DominionAlthough we humans are part of the natural world, we have a unique position in it that makes us superior to all other beings. This is not a matter of physical size or strength, for on that scale of things we are only infinitesimal specks on a planet that is itself but a speck in the infinite reaches of the universe. Rather, the reason humans are regarded as the crown of creation is due entirely to our unique spiritual endowment. Humans have the ability, unparalleled in the natural world, to know God and to attain the transcendent purpose. In the special intimacy which we share with God, humans are potentially of more value than the entire world of creation. In this light, the bounty of creation has been regarded as a gift of divine love.In the Abrahamic religions, humans are said to have been created as God's "viceregents" and granted the blessing of dominion over all things. All things exist for our benefit, by which we can develop ourselves to become co-creators with God. Furthermore, humans are uniquely able to have dominion because we can understand the nature of all other creatures--symbolized by our giving them names. The blessing of dominion was not originally sanction for developing technology to extract wealth and a comfortable artificial environment at the expense of nature; in the agricultural societies for which this mandate was first given, human creativity was seen as essentially in harmony with natural processes. Today it may be interpreted as a call for artistic and creative projects to enhance the beauty and productivity of nature and the quality of human life. Do you not see that God has subjected to your use all things in the heavens and on earth, and has made His bounties flow to you in exceeding measure, both seen and unseen? Islam. Qur'an 31.20 I will create a vicegerent on earth. Islam. Qur'an 2.30 And God blessed them, and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth." Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Genesis 1.28 When I look at Thy heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the moon and the stars which Thou hast established; What is man that Thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that Thou dost care for him? Yet Thou hast made him little less than God, and dost crown him with glory and honor. Thou hast given him dominion over the works of Thy hands; Thou hast put all things under his feet. Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Psalm 8.3-6 God is He who created the heavens and the earth, and sends down rain from the skies, and with it brings forth fruits to feed you; it is He who made the ships subject to you, that they may sail through the sea by His command; and the rivers He has made subject to you. And He made subject to you the sun and the moon, both diligently pursuing their courses; and the night and the day He has made subject to you. And He gives you of all that you ask for. But if you count the favors of God, never will you be able to number them. Verily, man is given up to injustice and ingratitude. Islam. Qur'an 14.32-34 The whole world was created only for the sake of the righteous man. He weighs as much as the whole world. The whole world was created only to be united to him. Judaism. Talmud, Shabbat 30b Truly do I exist in all beings, but I am most manifest in man. The human heart is My favorite dwelling place. Hinduism. Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2 Qur'an 2.30: See the complete passage, Qur'an 2.30-33, p. 313; see also Sun Myung Moon, 10-13-70, p. 313. Genesis 1.28: Cf. Shabbat 33b, p. 1014. We did indeed offer the Trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains; but they refused to undertake it, being afraid of it. But man undertook it; he was indeed unjust and foolish. Islam. Qur'an 33.72 His movement is of Heaven, his stillness of Earth. With his single mind in repose, he is king of the world; the spirits do not afflict him; his soul knows no weariness. His single mind reposed, the ten thousand things submit--which is to say that his emptiness and stillness reach throughout Heaven and Earth and penetrate the ten thousand things. This is what is called Heavenly joy. Heavenly joy is the mind of the sage by which he shepherds the world. Taoism. Chuang Tzu 13 Man, as the manifestation of God, is the leader of all things, and no creature is more honorable than man. All things upon the earth, following their own individual names, fashioning their true way, will know that Thou hast brought them to sight for man's sake. All things whatsoever, forgetting not their source, deviating not from their determined pattern, are made to work as well as to understand their part; humbling themselves and honoring man, without anger, without haste, without anxiety, without grief, neither linked nor parted, they are made to work out their true personality. Perfect Liberty Kyodan. The Ritual Prayer Having created the world and all that lives and moves therein, He, through the direct operation of His unconstrained and sovereign Will, chose to confer upon man the unique distinction and capacity to know Him and to love Him--a capacity that must needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying the whole of creation.... Upon the inmost reality of each and every created thing He has shed the light of one of His names, and made it a recipient of the glory of one of His attributes. Upon the reality of man, however, He has focused the radiance of all of His names and attributes, and made it a mirror of His own Self. Alone of all created things man has been singled out for so great a favor, so enduring a bounty. Baha'i Faith. Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah 27 Qur'an 33.72: The 'Trust' means the responsibility to choose good and reject evil, to live by God's purposes. Among all created beings, only humans have free will and the responsibility it confers. Yet we have abused it. Cf. Shabbat 886-89a, p. 313. Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah 27: Cf. Aitareya Upanishad 1.1-3.12, pp. 306f.; Sun Myung Moon, 9-30-79, p. 307; 10-13-70, p. 313. Rangi and Papa, or Heaven and Earth, were the source from which, in the beginning, all things originated. Darkness then rested upon the heaven and upon the earth, and they still both cleave together, and the children they had begotten were ever thinking amongst themselves what might be the difference between darkness and light. Hence the ancient saying, "There was darkness from the first division of time, unto the tenth, to the hundredth, to the thousandth." At last the beings who had been begotten by Heaven and Earth, worn out by the continued darkness, consulted amongst themselves, saying, "Let us now determine what we should do with Rangi and Papa, whether it would be better to slay them or to rend them apart." Then spoke Tumatauenga, the fiercest of the children of Heaven and Earth, "Let us slay them." But Tane-mahuta, the father of forests and all things that inhabit them, said, "Nay, not so. It is better to rend them apart, and to let heaven stand far above us, and the earth lie beneath our feet. Let the sky become a stranger to us, but the earth remain close to us as a nursing mother." Five of the brothers consented to this proposal, but not Tawhiri-ma-tea, the father of winds and storms. He, fearing that his kingdom was about to be overthrown, grieved greatly at the thought of his parents being torn apart. Then Rongo-ma-tane, the god and father of cultivated food, rises up to rend apart the heavens and the earth; he struggles, but is unable to rend them apart. Next Tangaroa, the god and father of fish and reptiles rises up; he struggles, but he is unable to rend them apart. Next Haumia-tikitiki, the god and father of the food which springs up without cultivation, rises up and struggles, but he, too fails. At last, slowly rises Tane-mahuta, the god and father of forests, birds, and insects, and he struggles with his parents. With his head firmly planted on mother earth and his feet upraised and resting against the skies, he strains his back and limbs with mighty effort and rends apart Rangi and Papa, all the while insensible to their shrieks and cries. Thus it is said, "It was the fierce thrusting of Tane which tore the heaven from the earth, so that they were rent apart, and darkness was made manifest, and so was the light." Then there arose in the breast of Tawhiri-ma-tea, the god and father of winds and storms, a fierce desire to wage war with his brothers, because they had rent apart their common parents without his consent. So he rises, follows his father to the realms above, and hurries to the sheltered hollows in the boundless skies; there he consults long with his father, and as the vast Heaven listens to the suggestions of Tawhiri-ma-tea, thoughts and plans are formed in his breast, and Tawhiri-ma-tea also understands what he should do. Then by himself and vast Heaven were begotten his numerous brood: the mighty winds, squalls, whirlwinds, dense clouds, massy clouds, gloomy thick clouds, fiery clouds, clouds reflecting glowing red light, and the wildly bursting clouds of thunderstorms. In the midst of these, Tawhiri-ma-tea sweeps wildly on. Alas! alas! then rages the fierce hurricane; and while Tane-mahuta and his gigantic forests stand unconscious and unsuspecting, the blast of the breath of the mouth of Tawhiri-ma-tea smites them, the gigantic trees are snapt off right in the middle. Alas! they are rent to atoms, dashed to the earth, with boughs and branches torn and scattered, lying on the earth, left for the insect, for the grub, and for loathsome rottenness. Tawhiri-ma-tea next swoops down upon the seas, and lashes in his wrath the ocean. Ah! ah! waves steep as cliffs rise, with tops so lofty as to make one giddy; these soon eddy into whirlpools, and Tangaroa, the god of the ocean and father of all that dwell therein, flies affrighted through the seas.... Tawhiri-ma-tea next rushed on to attack his brothers Rongo-ma-tane and Haumia-tikitiki, the gods and progenitors of cultivated and uncultivated food, but Papa, to save these for her other children, caught them up and hid them in a place of safety; and so well were they concealed by their mother Earth that he sought for them in vain. Tawhiri-ma-tea, having thus vanquished all his other brothers, next rushed against Tumatauenga, to try his strength against his; he exerted all his force against him, but he could neither shake him nor prevail against him. What did Tumatauenga care for his brother's wrath? He was the only one of the whole party of brothers who had proposed to kill their parents. Now, against the storm winds, he shows himself brave and fierce in war. His other brothers had been broken or fled or had been hidden, but Tumatauenga, or man, still stood erect and unshaken upon the breast of his mother Earth. Tumatauenga reflected upon the cowardly manner in which his brothers had acted, in leaving him to show his courage alone, and he determined to turn against them. To injure Tane-mahuta, he collected leaves and made snares--ha! ha! the children of Tane fell before him, none could any longer fly in safety. To take revenge on his brother Tangaroa, he sought for his offspring leaping and swimming in the water. He netted nets with flax, dragged with them, and hauled the children of Tangaroa ashore. To be revenged upon his brothers Rongo-ma-tane and Haumia-tikitiki, he soon found them by their distinctive leaves, and scraping into shape a wooden hoe and plaiting a basket, he dug in the earth and pulled up all kinds of plants with edible roots. Thus Tumatauenga deposed four of his brothers, and they became his food. But one of them, Tawhiri-ma-tea, he could not vanquish by eating him for food, so this last-born child of Heaven and Earth was left as an enemy for man, and still this brother ever attacks him in storms and hurricanes, to destroy him alike on sea and land. Maori Religion. On the Origin of the Human Race (New Zealand) Maori Tradition: On the primordial androgyne, cf. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.3, p. 252. On separating light from darkness as the first act of creation, compare Genesis 1, p. 126. This story is also interpreted to show the origin of evil: from the parricide of the primordial family has come division and strife between man and man. DonationsFor those who do not pursue a religious vocation, the offering is most often a donation of money and material possessions to honor God and support the community of the faithful. The liberal donor puts the wealth and honor of God and God's representatives ahead of his own needs; through his donation he offers what he holds most dear. As a standard for the faithful giver, the Bible recommends a tithe, or ten percent of one's earnings. Through such gifts the believer is promised a place in heaven.Contributions to the faith are not always distinguished from Charity, pp. 987-92, to the less fortunate. In the Qur'an, the duty to give alms covers both meanings interchangeably, though Islam sometimes distinguishes zakat, the obligatory tithing to the religious authorities, from sadaqa, meaning alms-giving to the less fortunate above the legal requirement. In Islamic and Christian societies, mosques and churches typically devote most of the funds contributed for the faith to charitable purposes: to feed, clothe, and tend to the needs of the poor, infirm, widows, orphans, and homeless. On the other hand, religious offerings differ from charity given directly to the poor in that they are meant to show devotion to God or to those who represent Truth in the highest degree. Thus, some of the pass- ages in the latter part of this section address the questions of how and to whom donations should be given. For an offering to have the highest spiritual merit, both the donor and the recipient should be worthy. The donor should give with a pure mind and without expecting any reward or benefit from his gift. As to the recipient, he should be worthy: in Buddhist terms he should be a suitable "field of merit" where the donations that are sown may bear abundant fruit. Every sacrifice is a boat to heaven. Hinduism. Satapatha Brahmana 4.2.5.10 He who gives liberally goes straight to the gods; on the high ridge of heaven he stands exalted. Hinduism. Rig Veda 1.125.5 You will not attain piety until you expend of what you love; and whatever thing you expend, God knows of it. Islam. Qur'an 3.92 All the tithe of the land, whether of the seed of the land or of the fruit of the trees, is the Lord's; it is holy to the Lord. Judaism and Christianity. Leviticus 27.30 As water surely will wash away blood, so the giving of food to homeless or virtuous saints will certainly destroy the sins incidental to a house- holder's life. Jainism. Samantabadhra, Ratnakarandasravakacara 114 Verily, misers go not to the celestial realms. Fools do not indeed praise liberality. The wise man rejoices in giving and thereby becomes happy thereafter. Buddhism. Dhammapada 177 We should resolve to offer not only one tenth but three tenths of our earnings for the building of the Kingdom of God. One tenth is for your country, one tenth is for the people of the world, and one tenth is for the Kingdom of Heaven. Unification Church. Sun Myung Moon, 4-15-61 And [Jesus] sat down opposite the treasury [of the Temple], and watched the multitude putting money into the treasury. Many rich people put in large sums. And a poor widow came, and put in two copper coins, which make a penny. And he called his disciples to him and said to them, "Truly, I say to you, this poor widow has put in more than all those who are contributing to the treasury. For they all contributed out of their abundance, but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, her whole living." Christianity. Bible, Mark 12.41-44 The word of the Lord came by Haggai the prophet, "Is it a time for you yourselves to dwell in your paneled houses, while this temple lies in ruins? Now therefore thus says the Lord of Hosts: 'Consider how you have fared. You have sown much, and harvested little; you eat, but you never have enough; you drink, but you never have your fill; you clothe your- selves, but no one is warm; and he who earns wages earns wages to put them in a bag with holes.... Go up to the hills, and bring wood and build the temple, that I may take pleasure in it and that I may appear in my glory', says the Lord." Judaism and Christianity. Haggai 1.3-8 Weeds are the bane of fields, lust is the bane of mankind. Hence what is given to those without lust yields abundant fruit. Weeds are the bane of fields, hatred is the bane of mankind. Hence what is given to those rid of hatred yields abundant fruit. Weeds are the bane of fields, delusion is the bane of mankind. Hence what is given to those rid of delusion yields abundant fruit. Weeds are the bane of fields, craving is the bane of mankind. Hence what is given to those rid of craving yields abundant fruit. Buddhism. Dhammapada 356-59 The likeness of those who spend their wealth in God's way is as the likeness of a grain which grows seven ears, in every ear a hundred grains. God gives increase manifold to whom He will. God is All-embracing, All- knowing. Those who spend their wealth for the cause of God and afterward make not reproach and injury to follow that which they have spent; their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them, neither shall they grieve. Islam. Qur'an 2.261-62 When you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, so that your alms may be in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you. Christianity. Matthew 6.3-4 O you who believe, spend of the good things which you have earned, and of that which We bring forth from the earth for you, and seek not the bad with intent to spend it in charity when you would not take it for your- selves save with disdain; and know that God is Absolute Owner of Praise... Whatever alms you spend, or vow you vow, lo! God knows it. Wrongdoers have no helpers. If you publish your almsgiving, it is well, but if you hide it and give it to the poor, it will be better for you, and will atone for some of your ill-deeds. God is Informed of what you do.... And whatever good thing you spend, it is for yourselves, when you spend it not save in search of God's countenance; and whatever good thing you spend, it will be repaid to you in full, and you will not be wronged. [Alms are] for the poor who are straitened for the cause of God, who can- not travel in the land [for trade]. The unthinking man accounts them wealthy because of their restraint. You shall know them by their mark: They do not beg of men with importunity. And whatever good thing you spend, lo! God knows it. Those who spend their wealth by night and day, by stealth and openly, verily their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them, neither shall they grieve. Islam. Qur'an 2.267-74 A gift is a gift of integrity when it is given at the right place and time to the proper person, To one who cannot be expected to return the gift-- and given merely because it should be given. But what is given to get a gift in return, or for the sake of some result, Or unwillingly, That is a gift in the sphere of passion. A gift is called slothful when it is given not at the right time and place, Nor to a worthy person, nor with proper ceremony, but with contempt. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 17.20-22 He who receives a prophet because he is a prophet shall receive a prophet's reward, and he who receives a righteous man because he is a righteous man will receive a righteous man's reward. And whoever gives to one of these little ones even a cup of cold water because he is a disciple, truly, I say to you, he shall not lose his reward. Christianity. Matthew 10.41-42 Those who build shrines of stone, Of sandalwood or aloes, Of brick and tiles, or clay; Or those who, in the wilds, Built Buddha-shrines of earth; Even children who, in play, Gathered sand for a Buddha's stupa; Such men and beings as these Have all attained to Buddhahood. Buddhism. Lotus Sutra 2 Just as much seed sown in a sterile field will not yield abundant fruit nor please the husbandman, even so, bountiful giving bestowed upon the wicked does not yield abundant fruit, nor delight the donor. And just as when scanty seed is sown in good ground the harvest gladdens the farmer when there is plenty of rain, even so when paid to the righteous, the virtuous, a deed, though it be slight, becomes merit fraught with great return. Buddhism. Petavatthu ii.69-71 Qur'an 3.92: Cf. Qur'an 108.1-2, p. 866; 47.38, p. 937. Leviticus 27.30: The custom of giving a tithe, or ten percent of one's income, is derived from this verse. Mark 12.41-44: Cf. 2 Corinthians 9.6-11, p. 836. Haggai 1.3-8: This was the attitude of the Pilgrims, who when they arrived in America, first built the church and school before providing for their own homes. Dhammapada 356-59: The notion that the saints are a field of merit is behind the metaphor in these verses. Cf. Digha Nikaya ii.88, p. 372. Qur'an 2.267-74: These and Qur'an 2.261-62 (above) are verses selected from a long discussion of donations (zakat). Verse 273 condemns indiscriminate acts of charity, and defines the proper beneficiaries as those doing volunteer service, religious teaching and ministry, those in exile, and those persecuted for their faith. Lotus Sutra 2: Cf. Hadith of Ibn Majah, p. 1015. Petavatthu ii.69-71: Many of the stories in this book deal with the spirits of the departed, "hungry ghosts" who fail to find satisfaction from the food offerings made by their kinfolk. They return to their kin and explain to them that they would be far more satisfied were they to make offerings to the Sangha in their name. Cf. Khuddaka Patha, Tirokudda Sutta, p. 374. DutyIn the midst of life's uncontrollable circumstances, scripture advocates an attitude that is responsible and dutiful. Just as Synergy, pp. 684-88, describes the conjunction of responsibility and grace, Duty describes the conjunction of responsibility and destiny.Admonitions to be responsible for one's own duty and station may refer to the obligations of one's role in society, what in Hinduism is called svadharma. By fulfilling the obligations incumbent upon one's position, the entire social order is supported and the community as a whole benefits. This is the case whether one's duty be a prince or a janitor; every role is valuable in building the whole. One's obligations are often proportionate to one's gifts and abilities, "to whom much is given, will much be required." Similarly, on the path of spiritual ascent, a person should not neglect his own welfare to compare himself to others and envy those who progress faster. Even to be preoccupied with helping others is flawed if done without regard to one's own spiritual growth, for how can a person properly guide others to enlightenment when his own soul is deep in ignorance? Our duty is to fulfill our individual covenant with God. Duty to God should transcend the varying fortunes of life; we should never seek to escape or avoid it. The example of Job reminds us that even in difficulty we should willingly "drink from the cup" which God has provided. We then move to the ethics of fulfilling one's duty. To do one's duty is a challenge, particularly when to shirk responsibility appears as an inviting temptation. The ethical imperative of duty is a reliable beacon for directing one's steps in the face of adversity or temptations of worldly ease. In the Confucian doctrine of Rectification of Names, the call to conform to one's station is a challenge in the sense that most people stray far from the duties which their positions would properly entail. In particular people in high positions are duty-bound to serve the public and show compassion to those below them, but they rarely fulfil this, being rulers in name but not in fact. Thus the ethic of fulfilling one's duty is seen as the root of what is most honorable and noble in man. The concluding passages reject fatalism and see in duty an opportunity for action. Implicit is a distinction between the fetters of conventional social duties and the higher duty to fulfil one's potential as a child of God. There is not one of us but has his appointed position, and we are verily ranged in ranks [for service]. Islam. Qur'an 37.164-65 Through your sojourn in the world, Know your station in life. Know it well, you in the world, Know it well. Shinto. Moritake Arakida, One Hundred Poems about the World For the sake of others' welfare, however great, let not one neglect one's own welfare. Clearly perceiving one's own welfare, let one be intent on one's own goal. Buddhism. Dhammapada 166 By devotion to one's own particular duty, everyone can attain perfection. Let me tell you how. By performing his own work, one worships the Creator who dwells in every creature. Such worship brings that person to fulfillment. It is better to perform one's own duties imperfectly than to master the duties of another. By fulfilling the obligations he is born with, a person never comes to grief. No one should abandon duties because he sees defects in them. One Hundred Poems about the World: This passage reflects the fusion of Confucian and Shinto ideas in Japanese religion. The notion of 'station in life' comes largely from the Confucian hierarchic system. Every action, every activity, is surrounded by defects as a fire is surrounded by smoke. Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 18.44-48 Leaving alone things which do not concern him is one of the good things in a man's Islam. Islam. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 12 If one does not perform duty to one whom the duty is due, one becomes a thief of the duty. Zoroastrianism. Avesta, Videvidad 4.1 Borrowed trousers and garments Never fit a man well; They are usually either too tight, Or too loose. Proper fitting is achieved When one wears one's own dress. African Traditional Religions. Yoruba Proverb (Nigeria) Let him not despise what he has received, nor should he live envying the gains of others. The disciple who envies the gains of others does not attain concentration. Though receiving but little, if a disciple does not despise his own gains, even the gods praise such a one who is pure in livelihood and is not slothful. Buddhism. Dhammapada 365-66 The little that one produces [oneself] with a broken hoe is better than the plenty that another gives you. African Traditional Religions. Buji Proverb (Nigeria) You cannot use your hand to force the sun to set. African Traditional Religions. Bette Proverb (Nigeria) All appointments are from Heaven, even that of a janitor. Judaism. Talmud, Baba Batra 91b Bhagavad Gita 18.44-48: By 'defects' the Bhagavad Gita is defending the imperfections of the caste system against Buddhist and Jain critiques. At the same time, this is practical advice that can be applied to many of life's situations. Dhammapada 365-66: On complaint and envy, see Bhagavad Gita 3.31-32, p. 162. Bette Proverb: This means that you cannot succeed in oversteppi | |||||
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